Digital tools in teaching - learning

Technology integration is the use of technology resources (computers, Internet etc.) in daily classroom practices, and in the management of a College. Computer based education refers to any kind of computer in educational settings. Computer technology is becoming increasingly important for education at every level. The computers make it possible to access, represent, process and communicate information in new ways. The computers make it possible to search and organize information, analyse data, represent ideas, simulate complex systems and communicate with others. They also enable new ways of teaching – learning , new activities, new products and new types of learning. Computers are cognitive tools; Computers are performance support systems (PSSs). Computers offer multi-media ways for obtaining large amounts of information, e.g., CD-ROMs and web sites.

Computers can be used in two ways

1.       The computer as a classroom tool

2.       The computer as a subject of instruction.

Internet and world wide web

The Internet consists of a vast collection of independent computers linked by national and international tele-communication networks.  Each Internet site contains information (text, images, audio, video, links etc.) which are accessible to the individual working from their home computer. Internet sites are increasing in number, sophistication and content.

Internet provides information in text, graphics, audio and video. New programming allows a greater degree of interactivity through real time audiovisual transfers and chat.  Coloured and animated graphics are of much greater educational value than photocopied images

The World Wide Web is a much hyped Internet application which potentially provides great flexibility in the distribution of teaching and learning resources in interesting fashion. Resources such as lecture notes, readings, tutorials and assignments can be delivered to, and received from, students both on and off campus. The learner searches website, collects information and learns the lesson. Web is a viable tool to help students gain education without being on campus. It allows greater autonomy of learning.

e-mail –messages are stored and sent via a computer system, transmitted across networks typically accessible only by the addressee.

E-learning applications

On - line students group: allows students to interact with each other

On - line lecturing: allows faculty to interact with students

On - line counseling: helps students in decision- making

On - line libraries and resource center: providing text, documents, articles for reference.

Multimedia tools

Students who use multimedia tools are active learners. Students reflect these kind of tasks throughout their life. Students work collaboratively, not only with each other, but with researchers and teachers.

Power point Presentation

It provides a platform for incorporating a variety of different kinds of multi-media file types: images, video, audio and animations. It is neat and clean and it allows for portability of materials. It is easy for professors to update, saving them time and energy.

Hypermedia tools

An approach to information storage and retrieval that provides multiple linkages among elements. It allows the user to navigate easily from one piece of information to another. It consists of a database of information structured as nodes or frames. It links between the nodes that allow rapid movement through the information and a user interface. Hypermedia tools are useful for exploring a large database of information, accessing elaborations on core information and promoting a ‘rich’ learning.

Hypertext tools

The linking of information together by highlighted keywords that have been marked up creating paths through related material from different sources such as footnotes and encyclopedias. Hypertext has the ability to connect related documents. Hyperlink is a connection among documents in a hypermedia and hypertext format.

Simulation tools

A computer simulation attempts to reproduce real-life situations. Simulations feature a combination of text and graphics ,using dialogue and inquiry to guide the student through a situation. Simulations also can bring about higher-order synthesis and analysis skills.

           Tutorials 

          They are one of the most common types of computer-assisted instruction. Tutorials are “page- turners” similar to textbooks. The one-to-one tutoring and feedback provided by a tutorial can make it an excellent tool for improving student knowledge. Drill-and-practice programs work well in increasing student knowledge through repetition, usually through cues.Students can repeat sections, helping individualized instruction. Drill-and-practice programs provide automatic feedback to learners.

Interactive video  and video Conferencing  applications

The interactive video refers broadly to software that responds to certain choices and commands by the user. A typical system consists of a combination of a compact disk, computer and video technology. Videodisc systems store video pictures, still pictures, and sound on discs that users can control with a videodisc player. These systems can provide the interactive capabilities of computers and the motion-picture capabilities of videos.
Video Conferencing is a method of performing interactive video communications over a regular high speed internet connection. It is a medium where individuals or groups can meet face-to-face in real time to interact and exchange ideas. It requires a fast speed internet connection, a microphone and a video camera. Since it was introduced, communication technologies have improved exponentially.

A digital library is a collection of textual, numeric, graphic, audio and video data stored in digital form, indexed and logically linked for ease of retrieval. The user can access information from anywhere in the world. Digital library allows ease of search and retrieval of information.

Time Management Skills

Time is a period during which an action, process or condition exists or continues.Time is a scarce resource(‘time is gold’). It is more valuable than money as money can be earned (‘time is money’). Time is fixed and we cannot change it. Every human being on earth has same amount of time -60 seconds in a minute; 60 minutes in an hour; 1,440 minutes in a day and 525,600 minutes in a year. You can't recycle wasted time. Managing time is like managing one's life. Achieving personal success requires efficient and productive use of time. Time management is the method that is used to organize one's time. Crucial to time management is an understanding of the difference between efficiency and effectiveness. Efficiency is doing things right. Effectiveness is doing the right things - in order to produce results.Time management is a skill that can be learned, practiced and mastered with determination and repetition. People who manage their time effectively have learned to structure their lives.Time Management involves knowing our goals, deciding on our priorities, anticipating future needs and making possible changes. It is all about controlling our life by controlling our time. It is about making commitment to be punctual without procrastinating. We must carry out our plans as per our schedule.

Definitions

Time management (TM) can be defined as the ability to prioritize, schedule and execute one’s daily responsibilities to a level of personal satisfaction. 

Time management (TM) is a set of principles, practices, skills, tools and systems working together to get more value out of our time with the aim of improving the quality of our life.

Pickle jar theory of time management 

We need to prioritize our activities and recognize our ‘big rocks’. We need to allot time in accordance with the priority. Big rocks are things of first importance which takes more time. Smaller rocks are urgent things but not so important. Sand goes in on top of the smaller rocks and creeps all around the big rocks i.e., activities thrust upon us from all directions and which cause a lot of upsets.

The Eisenhower decision matrix

The Eisenhower matrix is one of the simplest prioritization frameworks that categorize tasks either important and/or urgent. This quadrant was proposed by U S president Dwight D.Eisenhower. It is based on the principle of “what is important is seldom urgent and what is urgent is seldom important.” Based on this, a task would end up in one of the four categories measured in two distinct dimensions: Urgent/Not urgent or Important/Not important. Urgent means that a task requires immediate attention. Important tasks are tasks that contribute to our long-term mission, values and goals. Priority 1 tasks are tasks that are both urgent and important. These tasks need to be addressed personally and immediately. Priority 2 tasks are tasks that are important but not urgent. These tasks need to be addressed personally but not immediately so they need to have a planned date. Priority 3 tasks are tasks that are urgent but not important so they require immediate attention, but necessarily by you. Priority 4 tasks are tasks that are neither urgent nor important so they are mostly a waste of time. Always use the Eisenhower method, when adding tasks to your to do list. Always ask yourself whether it is important and whether it is urgent. In general, you can make a goal of spending at least 80% of your time in the ‘Not urgent and important’ quadrant. The other 20% will be divided between ‘Urgent and important’ and ‘urgent and not important.’

The 80/20 rule of time management

Italian Economist Vilfredo Pareto observed in 1906 that 80% of wealth in Italy was controlled by 20% of the Italian population. The 80/20 rule or Pareto principle works everywhere in life.The 80/20 rule says that 80% of what a person achieves is derived from 20% of the time the person expends.Every time more with less is possible, provided that we identify the golden 20%: the people, methods, time and methods that are extremely creative and productive. we devote 20% of our time to activity that is central to our aims and 80% on activity that is of marginal importance.

Elements of good time management

Macan(1994) identified three elements of time management (1) setting goals and priorities (2) mechanics (i.e. making to-do lists and scheduling) and preference for organization(i.e. one’s preference for organization in his/ her work space and approach to tasks or projects).Time management generally involves a five step process: setting priorities, analyzing, filtering, scheduling and executing.

Prioritize your time – Planning better defines the course of action that we propose to undertake. Our current choices actually reflect our responsibilities. We must clarify what is of greatest importance to our work/ life.

ABC priority system - Section A :items that need to be done that day; Section B : items that need completion within the week, and Section C : items that need to be done within a month. B and C items move up to the A or B lists as they become more pertinent.
Analyse your time use – we must find our biological prime  time.  We must defend it ruthlessly and spend it usefully. We must also find our dead time. We must schedule our timings based on our good and bad times.

Organize your time - Time is an equal opportunity resource: everyone gets 168 hours per week. Time is elusive and easy to ignore. Time is a non-renewable resource.Time seems to pass at varying speeds.

Schedule you time – Scheduling activities consists of allocating time to activities. “Failing to plan is planning to fail.” We must plan for each day, each week and each semester. We can always change your plan, but only once you have one! Activities should be grouped by topics.

The three-part scheduling plan 

• The master schedule 
• The weekly schedule 
• The daily schedule

Using a Daily Planner

• Complete a term assignment preview.
• Use a “week at a glance” organizer.
• Enter in due dates and social events as soon as you can.
• Review your calendar daily for the current week and upcoming week
• It just takes a moment to review your calendar and it can help relieve stress.

Executing the plan
Execution is the implementation of an established schedule. Sticking to a schedule provides greater control,saves time, provides freedom and increases flexibility.It makes tasks more manageable and helps us to work at peak efficiency.

Symptoms of Poor Time Management

Poor time management affects every part of our life from work to relationships. Symptoms or signs of poor time management are the following:

• A lack of achievement.
• Always missing deadlines 
• More time spent socializing at work.
• More time on the telephone.
• Indecisiveness leading to delayed work.
• Constantly interrupting others and being interrupted.

Barriers to good time management

Some of the barriers to good time management are the following: keeping too many things in our head; attempting to do “too much”;doing whatever grabs our attention next; not spending enough time on our top priorities; poor Planning; working in a disorganized and distracting environment; always saying “YES”; not managing our inflows and confusing activity with productivity.

Time Management Tips

Two main ways to control time - saving the time and allocating it  as per schedule.

• Learn to say NO assertively.
• Plan for change; it’s inevitable.
• Finish fully; it’s energizing and  motivating.

Time robbers/time stealers

Time robbers are behaviors that steal your valuable time away from responsibilities that really need attention. Time robbers can be persons or things that literally suck the energy out of your life. It includes telephone calls, poor planning, attempting to do too much, drop- in visitors, poor delegation, personal disorganization, lack of self discipline, can’t say ‘no’ and procrastination.

Benefits of good time management

The benefits of effective time management are numerous. With good time management skills one is in control of one’s time, stress and energy levels. One can maintain balance between one’s work and personal life. Good time management improves the quality of one’s life. You will get more time for making progress or enjoying life. Good time management boosts an individual’s self-esteem and self-confidence. Good time management makes an individual punctual and disciplined. Time management is the key to better productivity and job performance. Time management helps an individual less prone to stress and anxiety. With effective time management, you can save your health.

Concluding thoughts

Using Time to our benefit can create a sense of satisfaction and can help us to balance our work. Spending one minute planning saves four or five minutes in getting a task done. It can reduce stress and improve our health and  our career.

Quotes for reflection

"Time is the coin of your life. It is the only coin you have, and 
  only you can determine how it will be spent. 
  Be careful lest you let other people spend it for you."
                                                                         - Carl Sandburg.
"Time is what prevents everything from happening at once." -John Archibald Wheeler.

"Time is the longest distance between two places." - Tennessee Williams.

"Time is at once the most valuable and the most perishable of all our possessions."
  -John Randolph.

"Lost time is never found again." -Proverb.

"To choose time is to save time." -Francis Bacon.

"There is a time for everything, and a season for every activity under heaven." 

  -ECCLESIASTES 3:1

Good Teacher Skills and lecture method

All students have had hundreds of teachers in their lifetimes. They remember only a few teachers as being exceptionally good. Every teacher teaches in a patterned way. Few teachers are aware of the patterns implicit in their teaching. Teaching is a set of means. Telling is not teaching. Learning is the end-goal of teaching. Learning involves three steps like acquisition of information, its retention and the ability of learners to retrieve the knowledge when needed. Learners are meaning – makers. A quality teaching establishes a positive learning environment. It motivates student engagement. It provides appropriate challenges and is responsive to student’s learning needs. A good teacher is fair in evaluating student’s learning.
There is no single, all-purpose best method of teaching. Teaching is an individualistic pattern. The teacher has to adjust his/her teaching decisions to suit the subject matter, available resources, student’s motivation levels and his/her own strengths and weaknesses as a teacher. Basically education is viewed as a process, which inputs learners with certain knowledge, attitudes, values and skills.

"Core qualities" of a good teacher

Knowledge - the first prerequisite quality of a good teacher is knowledge of the subject. A teacher must be an expert in his field if he is going to be a good teacher. Teachers need both teaching skill and subject mastery.
Communication-the second core quality of a good teacher is the ability to communicate their knowledge and expertise to their students. There is a saying, "Give me a fish and I eat for a day, teach me to fish and I eat for a lifetime”.
Interest - A good teacher builds knowledge of the subject, with a clarity and understanding. Best teachers make the class interesting and relevant to the students. Good teachers work hard to make their material relevant.
Respect - Good teachers have a deep-seated concern and respect for the students in the classroom.

Learning and Teaching

Learning is a change in the way an individual thinks, acts and feels. Learning takes place through experiences involving people, things and events and the response to these.

Methods of Learning

The individual learns through the five senses – hearing, sight, touch, smell, taste and combinations of these – in involvement-oriented experiences.

Methods of Teaching

The method of teaching selected must be interesting to the learner.
The methods can be tied to the methods of learning – listening, seeing and doing.
Listening involves the hearing of something (use of only one of the senses). Since hearing accounts only 13 percent of learning, this is the least effective method used alone.
Seeing involves the eyes in observing new information. It is estimated that 75 percent of learning is derived from the eyes. Examples of teaching techniques include illustrated talks, demonstrations, tours, field trips and exhibits
Listening and seeing - when the young people see and hear new material, they will retain approximately 50 percent. Observing demonstrations, seeing movies, participating in tours, etc., are all ways Learners can see and hear.
Doing involves the total individual in the learning process or experience. By the involvement of the learner, maximum learning occurs. Examples of teaching techniques include work sessions or workshops, judging and role-playing,
Saying and Doing - when learners are actively involved in saying and doing, they will retain approximately 90 percent of the material. Most people learn best by actually “doing.” Provide opportunities for the learners to practice and explore what they have learned. They might plan and present a demonstration or teach younger members.

Lecture method

Strengths: lecture presents factual material in direct, logical manner. Lecture contains experience which inspires. It stimulates thinking to open discussion. Lecture is useful for large groups
Limitations: experts are not always good teachers; audience is passive; learning is difficult to gauge; communication is one way.
Preparation: lecture needs clear introduction and summary. It needs time and content limit to be effective. It should include examples, anecdotes.
Attention - The instructor may begin by telling a story, making an unexpected or surprising statement, asking a question, or telling a joke. The main concern is to gain the attention of everyone and concentrate on the subject.
Motivation -The purpose of the motivation element is to offer the student’s specific reasons why the lesson content is important to know, understand, apply, or perform. This motivation should appeal to each student personally and engender a desire to learn the material.
Overview - a clear, concise presentation of the objective and the key ideas gives the students a road map of the route to be followed. A good visual aid can help the students the path that they are to travel. The introduction should avoid stories, jokes, or incidents. Also, the instructor should avoid a long introduction.
Development is the main part of the lesson. The teacher must logically organize the teaching material to show the relationships of the main points. The teacher can proceed by developing the main points in one of the following ways:

1. From past to present- the subject matter is arranged chronologically, from the present to the past or from the past to the present.
2. Simple to complex- The student will find it easier to master simple concepts first and then apply these concepts to more complex ones.
3. Known to unknown - Learning moves faster when it builds on what the student already knows. Teaching that begins by comparing the old, known information and the new, unknown, one allows the student to grasp new information more quickly.
4. And most frequently used to least frequently use.
Accommodate learning style of students – Teaching should be according to the learning style preference. Visual learners gain knowledge best by seeing or reading; auditory learners, by listening; and tactile or psychomotor learners, by doing.
Sort goals by learning domain - A teacher can combine the knowledge of the student's preferred learning style with the knowledge of LEARNING DOMAINS. Learning behaviors fall in three domains: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. The cognitive domain deals with intellectual abilities. The psychomotor domain includes physical or motor skills.The affective domain involves expression of feeling about attitudes, interests, and values. Most learning involves all three domains.
Make material meaningful - Another way to facilitate learning is to relate material to the student's lifestyle and to recognize incompatibilities. The more meaningful material is to a student, the quicker and easier it will be learned.
Allow immediate application of knowledge – the students are given the opportunity to apply his or her new knowledge and skills reinforce learning and builds confidence. This immediate application translates learning to the "real world" and provides an opportunity for problem solving, feedback, and emotional support.
Plan for periodic rests - When your instructions are especially complex or lengthy, your students may feel overwhelmed and appear unreceptive to your teaching. Be sure to recognize these signs of mental fatigue and allow the students to relax.
Tell your students how they are progressing - Learning is made easier when the students are aware of their progress. Positive feedback can motivate them to greater effort because it makes their goal seem attainable.
Reward desired learning with praise- Praising desired learning outcomes improves student’s retention of the material. Reassuring them that they have learned the desired material or technique can help them retain and refine it.

Types of lectures

Illustrated talk : the speaker relies heavily on visual aids to convey ideas to the listeners.
Briefing: the speaker presents a concise array of facts to the listeners who normally do not expect elaboration of supporting material.
Formal lecture: the speaker's purpose is to inform, to persuade, or to entertain with little or no verbal participation by the students.
Teaching lecture: the instructor plans and delivers an oral presentation in a manner that allows some participation by the students and helps direct them toward the desired learning outcomes.
Preparing the Teaching Lecture - Careful preparation is one key to successful performance as a classroom lecturer. This preparation should start well in advance of the presentation.
The following four steps should be followed in the planning phase of preparation:
1. Establishing the objective and desired outcomes;
2. Researching the subject;
3. Organizing the material; and
4. Planning productive classroom activities.

Advantages of the Lecture

 In a lecture, the instructor can present many ideas in a relatively short time. Facts and ideas that have been logically organized can be concisely presented in rapid sequence. Lecturing is unquestionably the most economical of all teaching methods in terms of the time required to present a given amount of material. The lecture is particularly suitable for introducing a new subject and for explaining the necessary back- ground information.

Disadvantages of the Lecture

 the lecture inhibit student participation. Learning is an active process, and the lecture method tends to foster passiveness and teacher-dependence on the part of the students. As a teaching method, the lecture does not bring about maximum attainment of certain types of learning outcomes. Motor skills, for example, can seldom be learned by listening to a lecture.

Ecosystem : structure and attributes

Ecosystem is the basic structural and functional unit of ecology. Ecosystems are made up of abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) components in a specified volume of space. Ecosystems are open to the flow of energy and materials. Through the process of photosynthesis, green plants capture sunlight energy and combine it with carbon dioxide and water to produce carbohydrates and oxygen. Animals feed on plant biomass and transfer  energy through the ecosystem. The decomposers break down dead organic matter of plants and animals and restore their chemical components to the soil. Ecosystems provide many products and services that are crucial to human survival. Ecosystem concept provides a convenient means of understanding the highly complex global ecosystem.

Main attributes of Ecosystem

·         Structure – Composed of biotic and abiotic sub-components

·         Function – Energy exchange between living community and physical environment

·         Complexity – High levels of Biological integration

·         Interaction and inter dependency – Change in one effects another

·         Temporal – Change overtime - Dynamic

Ecosystem structure (Components)

All ecosystems are made up of abiotic and biotic components.

Abiotic (Physical) Components

      The non – living elements such as sunlight, water , air and soil are called abiotic components. These components are classified into 3 types:  Climatic factors (atmospheric temperature , wind , sunlight  and humidity) , edaphic factors (soil types, organic matter , mineral composition and inorganic and organic substances ( carbon, nitrogen , oxygen , proteins, carbohydrates , lipids , humus).

Biotic components

 Living organisms are called biotic factors. It includes three kinds of organisms such as primary producers, consumes and decomposers.

1. Primary producers – Green plants make use of sunlight and other abiotic elements to produce nutrients. Plants are also called autotrophic organisms because they manufacture their own food from simple inorganic substances.

2. Consumers – They feed on autotrophs (plant) or other heterotrophs to obtain energy. The primary consumers such as herbivores feed on the plants. The secondary consumers such as carnivores feed on herbivores. Scavengers such as bacteria feed on the dead and decaying organisms.

3. Decomposers - Decomposers are reducer organisms such as bacteria or fungi. They break down dead bodies of plants and animals into simpler compounds and return inorganic nutrients to the soil environment.

Properties of Ecological Systems

1. Networks –Interdependence, diversity, complexity
2. Boundaries- Scale and limits
3. Cycles – Recycling of resources and partnership
4. Flow –through – Energy and resources
5. Development – Succession and  co-evolution
6. Dynamic balance- Self – organization, flexibility, stability, sustainability

Characteristic features of ecosystems

An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature consisting of abiotic and biotic components. Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a large rain forest. Ecosystems exist as different varieties. Forest, grass land and desert are few examples of terrestrial ecosystems. Ponds, lakes wetlands, rivers and estuaries are some examples of aquatic ecosystems. Crop fields and aquarium are a few examples of man-made ecosystems.
Each ecosystem has characteristic physical structure resulting from the interaction of abiotic and biotic components. Species composition and stratification are the two main structural features of an ecosystem. A constant input of solar energy is the basic requirement for any ecosystem to function and sustain.

Biological productivity – primary production is the rate of capture of solar energy or biomass production by plant producers. Secondary production is the rate of assimilation of food energy by the consumers.

Food chains are the pathways along which nutrients pass through an ecosystem. Energy is passed through an ecosystem  via food chains and food webs. A food chain is a straight line sequence of who eats whom. A food web is a series of interlocking food chains.

10 per cent law – Only 10 per cent of energy is transferred from one trophic level to another. This flow of energy is unidirectional. During this energy transformation, some energy is lost as waste heat.

The biogeochemical cycle is the circulation of a chemical element (e.g. carbon, nitrogen and oxygen) between abiotic and biotic compartments of the ecosystem.  Chemical cycles help in the balance of organic and inorganic substances in the ecosystem.

A trophic level is a group of organisms that get their energy from the same source (trophic = feeding).Green plants get their energy from the sun through photosynthesis. Therefore they are all in the same trophic level. There are 3 basic trophic level groupings. i.e. producers, consumers and decomposers.

In most ecosystems the pyramids of energy, number and biomass are upright. i.e. producers are more in number and biomass than the herbivores and herbivores are more in number and biomass than the carnivores.

The composition and structure of a biotic community   undergoes change in response with the passage of time. These changes constitute ecological succession. Succession begins with the invasion of a lifeless area by pioneers followed by successors and finally a stable climax community is formed.

Healthy ecosystems are the base for a wide range of benefits to humanity known as ‘ecosystem goods and services’. The proper functioning of the world’s ecosystem is critical to human survival.

Ecosystem functions

“Ecosystem function is the capacity of natural processes and components to provide goods and services that may satisfy human needs either directly or indirectly.”

 Primary functions of ecosystem 

·         Regulatory functions – govern climate,  rain fall and life support systems.

·         Habitat functions – provide habitat for wild plants and animals.

·         Production functions – supply food, fuel, fibres and fodder.

·         Information services – cover the beauty, inspiration and recreation that contribute to our spiritual welfare.

Ecosystems purify the air and water, generate oxygen and stabilize out climate.

Ecosystems have thousands of plant, animal and microorganism species which are used and traded by humans for food, shelter, medicinal, cultural, and aesthetic and many other purposes.

Ecosystems provide refuge and reproduction habitat to wild plants and animals.

The microorganisms decompose and detoxify organic matter derived from plants and animals of both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.

Biological Diversity - characteristics and conservation

The term BIODIVERSITY was first coined by the entomologist E.O. Wilson in 1986. Biodiversity is the heritage of 3 billion of years of evolution. Diversity is a basic property of life. The striking feature of Earth is the existence of Life and the striking feature of Life is its Diversity. Biodiversity is the measure of the number, variety and variability of living organisms. Variety refers to the number of different types of organisms. Quantity is the number or total biomass of any one type. Distribution is the extent and nature of geographic spread of different types of organisms.Biodiversity includes diversity within species, between species and among ecosystems. Biodiversity is the sum of life on earth and includes genetic, species and functional diversity. The status and trends in biodiversity reflect the health of the ecosystems that support and enrich human life.

Biodiversity – plants, animals, microorganisms and the ecological processes that interconnect them – forms the planet’s natural productivity. In the last 50 years, there was “a substantial and largely irreversible loss in the diversity of life on Earth” (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).Human activities have altered the world’s terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems throughout history.

Types of biodiversity 

Genetic diversity – the genetic variation among individuals in a species

Species diversity – the number of different species in a given area

Ecosystem diversity – the variety of ecosystems on Earth /the variety of interactions among organisms in a community 

The biodiversity is the spectrum of life on earth, in terms of variation in genes, populations, species, ecosystems, and interactions among them. Most estimates of the total number of species on Earth lie between 5 million and 30 million. Of this total, roughly 2 million species have been formally described; the remainder are unknown or unnamed. Biodiversity is not static, but constantly changing. Biodiversity is increased by genetic change and evolutionary processes and reduced by processes such as habitat degradation, population decline, and extinction.

Genetic diversity

It is the variation within genes(alleles & haplotypes ),variation within individuals(individual heterozygosity), variation within populations(allele frequencies, average heterozygosity, average number of polymorphic alleles and loci) and variation among populations (differentiation and genetic distance).

Species diversity

 It represents the different types of plants, animals and other life forms within a region. It is a dynamic property and changes over space and time. The number of species and their relative abundances depend on the size and geographic area of the ecosystem. Species diversity is an indicator of the biological richness/stress of an ecosystem. 

Ecosystem diversity

It is the variety of different  habitats/ecosystems  in  a particular area      ( e.g.. wetland, woodland, grassland). The ecosystems of the world are maintained by their biodiversity. Every ecosystem can be characterized by its own species composition. The ecosystems differ in features such as physical structure, temperature, water availability and food types.

Why is biodiversity important?

• Regulation of climate and biogeochemical cycles, 
• Hydrological functions 
• Soil protection, 
• Crop pollination, 
• Pest control, 
• Recreation and ecotourism 
• Wildlife habitat and diversity 
• “public goods” to society

Values of biodiversity

Ecological values - all living creatures are supported by the interactions among organisms and ecosystems. Loss of biodiversity makes ecosystems less stable, more vulnerable to extreme events, and weakens its natural cycles.

Economic values -A biologically diverse natural environment provides humans with the necessities of life and forms the basis for the economy. Every thing we buy and sell originates from the natural world.

Cultural values - Human cultures around the world profoundly reflect our visceral attachment to the natural world. Thus cultural diversity is linked to Earth’s biodiversity.

Biodiversity and Sustainability

The biodiversity of an ecosystem contributes to the sustainability of that ecosystem. Higher/more biodiversity is  more sustainable. Lower/less biodiversity is  less sustainable.  High biodiversity in an ecosystem means that there is a great variety of genes and species in that ecosystem.

 Conservation of biodiversity

Ex-situ conservation means “off-site” conservation. 

The species of plants and animals to be protected are removed from the natural habitats and are placed in the safer areas under the control of man. Botanical gardens, zoos and the arboreta are the traditional methods of ex-situ conservation. Germ plasm banks or Seed banks (also Gene banks) are some other methods of ex-situ conservation.

In-situ conservation means “on-site” conservation.

It is the  protection of species within the natural habitat of the species of animals and plants. It includes protection in the wildlife sanctuaries, national parks and biosphere reserves etc. that have been formed to protect threatened and even rare species. In India we have 608 protected areas: 95 national parks, 13 biosphere reserves  and 500 wildlife sanctuaries. In India, there are four internationally recognized Biosphere Reserves: Nilgiri, Gulf of Mannar, Sunderbans and Nanda Devi (Man and Biosphere Programme of UNESCO). In Tamil nadu  ther are 5 national parks, 20 wild life sancturies and  2 biosphere reserves.

“Every country has three forms of wealth: material, cultural and biological. The first two we understand well, because they are the substance of our everyday lives. The essence of the biodiversity problem is that biological wealth is taken much less seriously. . . ..”  - Edward Wilson, The Diversity of Life (1992).

Teaching of Biological concepts

                 Biology is a rich mine of concepts, theories, hypotheses and laws. The explosive growth of biological data created an excellent opportunity for the development of concepts. The concepts are crucial for understanding inferences from experimental data. Concepts are the structural elements of the growing body of knowledge. A concept is a basic unit of information that represents a category. The data remains as a pile of incoherent informational items before it is ordered into concepts. Biology teaching is moving away from the emphasis on the mastery of contents/ facts and is now concentrating more on concepts and scientific thinking.

Meaning of concept

A concept is a set of specific objects, symbols or events which are grouped together on the basis of shared characteristics and which can be referenced by a particular name or symbol. A concept is thus a class of objects, rather than individual example, each member of the class sharing one or more common characteristics. The word ‘cell’ represents a concept , in that it stands for a class of things that possess a number of common qualities or attributes such as a cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus and so on. The common characteristics that members of a concept share can be either structural or functional attributes or both. In order to qualify as a member of a particular concept group an individual example must possess certain key characteristics called critical attributes. Concepts that can be observed are termed ‘concrete’ concepts, whereas those that are not observable are termed ‘defined’ or ‘abstract’ concepts. Liver is an example of a concrete observable concept, whereas ‘health’ is an abstract one. Abstract concepts tend to be more difficult to learn than concrete concepts.

Concepts form hierarchies, with the most inclusive ones, at the top and more specific ones below and they also cluster together with other related concepts.

Concept components

1. Name : for e.g. Noun is the name or label of a concept. The name is more effective and understandable than a lengthy definition.

2. Definition: A definition is a statement about the concept characteristics e.g. ‘ a noun is a person, place or thing’.

3. Characteristics: Characteristics are qualities that must be present for the concept to apply for e.g. the characteristics of a noun are ‘person, place or thing’.

4. Examples : Examples are members of a class of things that show a concept’s essential characteristics.

5. Place in a hierarchy : Most concepts are part of a content hierarchy that gives meaning to the concept and makes it easier to learn.

How to define a Concept

The process of concept definition involves 3 steps

1. Identify the concept name – that will be used to identify the general class.

2. Identify the attributes or characteristics that are used for identification of the class.

3. Write a concise definition for the concept.

Concept Mapping

In the 1960s, Joseph D. Novak (1993) at Cornell University developed the technique of concept mapping( Novak and Godwin 1984). This technique was based on the theory of meaning learning by David P. Ausubel et al (1978). A concept map is a visual illustration of displaying the organization concepts/ideas and outlining the relationships among or between this concepts.(Hoffman and Novak 2003).

Criteria of concept maps

Concept maps are composed of interrelated items: nodes, lines, labels.

Nodes represent concepts.

Lines represent relations among concepts.

Labels in the lines describe the nature of those relations.

Arrow heads indicates the direction of the relationships.

The combination of a pair of concepts and a line constitutes the fundamental unit of a concept map, a proposition or meaningful statement.

Linking concepts is the most important aspect of concept mapping. The concept arrangement and linking line orientation determine the structure of the concept map.(e.g. hierarchical or non-hierarchical).

Objectives of concept mapping

Concept maps are used to generate ideas (brain storming ) and to design complex structures (long texts, hypermedia, large web sites). They are utilized to communicate complex ideas. It's an aid in  learning by connecting new and old knowledge and to assess understanding and diagnose misunderstanding.

How to construct concept maps

1. Read the passage.
2. Select the most important idea in the passage.
3. Reread the passage and identify the key concepts.
4. Rank the concept words hierarchically from the most inclusive to the least inclusive.
5. Arrange not only according to hierarchy but also according to relationships.
6. Link draw lines between and among concepts. Label the lines with a word or phrase that explain the relationship.
7. Review your concept map.
8. Write a paragraph summarizing the concept.

Advantages of concept mapping

Visual representation has several advantages:

-visual symbols are quickly and easily recognized

-minimum use of text makes it easy to scan for a word, phrase or the general ideas and

- visual representation allows for development of a holistic understanding.

Educational uses of concept map 

The concept is placed in the centre and the attributes are radiating out from the central concept.

Concept maps are often referred to as a ‘map’ because they help teachers and students ‘map out’ their ideas in a visual manner. Teachers may use a concept map to attempt, to provide structure for the presentation of new material while indicating the relations between concepts. They can illustrate patterns and relationships among concepts. Students also can build concept maps on scientific ideas which provide more interconnected understanding of scientific principles and abstract concepts. Students can easily memorize information contained in a picture.

Kinds of concept maps

Linear concept maps are like flow charts that show how one concept or event leads to another.

Hierarchical concept maps represent information in a descending order of importance. The key concept is on top and subordinate concepts fall below.

Spider concept maps have a central or unifying theme in the centre of the map. Outwardly radiating sub themes surround the main theme.

Spider concept maps are useful for brainstorming or at other times when relationships between the themes need to be left open-ended.

It is used to explore a topic and identify main ideas and details.

Cross-linked concept maps use a descriptive word or phrase and identify the relationships with a labeled arrow.

Key characteristics of concept maps

1. Concept maps have structure. More general concepts are presented at the top with more specific concepts at the bottom.
2. Concept maps are based on propositions – Two concepts form a proposition.
3. Concept maps have context – Understanding of a particular domain of knowledge.

Applications of Concept mapping

1. Creativity tool / mind tool – to ‘show-case what I know’. New ideas leads to new associations ..

2. Hypertext tool- to navigate a web site

3. Communication tool-to discuss concepts and the relationships between the concepts.

4. Student learning tool-to learn course material or to integrate course content or to integrate material across different courses.

5. Assessment tool – to evaluate student learning or to obtain learner feedback.

6. Instructional tool / knowledge representation tool– to organize course content or to prepare specific lessons or to present material to students.

7. Program planning tool- to display order of a programme
Acknowledgement

I gratefully acknowledge my daughter V.Joanna for the help in preparing this presentation.

References

 Novak J D 1991 Clarify with Concept maps: A tool for students and teachers alike. The Science Teacher 58(7) 45-49

 Novak J D and D B Gowin 1986 Learning How to learn, Cambridge University Press, London

 Moreira M A 1979 Concept maps as tools for teaching, Journal of Science Teaching VIII(5):283-286

 Ausubel D.P 1968 Educational psychology: a cognitive view, Rinehart and Winston New York.

 Novak J D 1986 Introduction to concept mapping : A handbook for educators Cornell University, Department of Education, Ithaca, New York.

 Novak J D 1990 Concept Mapping : A useful tool for Science Education. Journal of research in science teaching 27(10) : 937-949.

About the presenter

I , Dr.B.Victor am a highly experienced post graduate professor of Biotechnology  recently retired from a reputed higher educational institution, St.Xaviers College Palayamkottai , India.

I was the dean of sciences ,internal quality assessment coordinator and assistant controller of examinations of the institution. I have more than 32 years of teaching and research experience. I have guided 12 Ph.d scholars in the field of reproductive biology, invertebrate haematology and environmental toxicology. I have taught a diversity of courses ranging from graduate level to research levels in biology.

My goal as a teacher is not only to teach the subject matter of a particular course, but to help to students improve their ability to think and communicate as a researcher. I focus on the incredible complexity and interrelationships among biological concepts.