Thinking differently with divergent and convergent modes

The American psychologist Joy Paul Guilford (1897-1987) introduced the terms divergent and convergent thinking in 1946.  The divergent and convergent thinking are two natural forms of thinking (two sides to the same coin) that produces solutions to problems (production type of thinking). “Convergence” refers to thinking that leads to a single correct solution. “Divergence” refers to thinking that leads to number of correct solutions. Both divergent and convergent thinking are necessary for problem solving, decision making, creativity and innovation. Divergent thinking is used to create ideas and convergent thinking is used to judge ideas. Convergent thinking is opposite of divergent thinking. In divergent thinking, one thought stimulates many others and the thinking branches or broaden out (multi-directional thinking). In convergent thinking, many thoughts are reduced to a single one and the thinking funnels in (linear thinking). In divergent thinking, a problem can be solved with different approaches whereas in convergent thinking, there is one answer for any given problem. Divergent thinking is generating options without judgement and convergent thinking is judging the options.

Creativity = “diverge before you converge

Creativity = Divergent thinking (“thinking up ideas”) + convergent thinking (“assess the effectiveness of the ideas”) 

Creativity = Generating many ideas + converging on the best idea 

Definitions and explanations

Convergent thinking is the ability to apply logic and knowledge to narrow down the number of possible solutions to a problem. Convergent thinking is more rigorous and analytical and is associated with focused attention.  Consideration, improving and fine – tuning of ideas are part of convergent thinking. Convergent thinking focuses on ‘screening, selecting and evaluating alternatives’ (Puccio et al. 2006). The goal of convergent thinking is to find the one correct answer or the best answer of the options available.

Divergent thinking is the ability to think along many paths to generate many solutions to a problem. Brain storming is a typical example of divergent thinking. Divergent thinking is essentially open-ended thinking involving non-logical processes which allows using one’s imagination to explore all sorts of new possibilities. The goal of divergent thinking is to come up with many possible solutions, answers or options. Divergent thinking typically occurs in a spontaneous, free-flowing manner and many ideas are generated in a random, unorganized fashion. J.P. Guilford (1950, 1967) described divergent thinking as a primary method of achieving creative ideas.  

Divergent thinking à thinking outwards—centrifugal movement-- broad focus of attention—less goal bound—gathering diverse points of view—suspending judgement-- idea generation—creative process.

Convergent thinking à thinking inwards –centripetal movement--narrow focus of attention –more goal bound -- sorting ideas into categories—exercising judgement – idea analysis—evaluative process.

Convergence and divergence

Convergence means bringing together and moving toward one point. Divergence means developing in different directions. Divergence is a mode of thinking in which one uses the right brain to explore ideas or solutions without judging them. In convergence thinking mode one uses the left brain to analyse ideas and think them through logically.  Convergence and divergence are two necessary types of thinking for being creative. In any problem solving situation from the beginning to the end, individuals are shifting their thinking modes between divergence and convergence. The ability to switch from one type of thinking to other is called pivot thinking. Pivot thinking is a cognitive problem solving style that easily pivots or shifts between divergent or convergent problem solution possibilities. One of the key indicators of an innovative process is the alternation between divergent and convergent thinking modes of thinking with frequent pivots between the two modes. A “converger” would tend to prefer convergent problem solving techniques while a “diverger” would tend to favour divergent problem solving techniques. A “pivot thinker” would display problem solving preferences that easily pivots or shifts between divergent and convergent approaches.

Rules of divergent thinking

A divergent thinking involves imaging, reframing and seeing issues from different perspectives. Divergent thinking is complex, associative process of bringing alternative, novel, and original ideas to emergence. Divergent thinking allows one’s imagination to produce variability and encourages the production of multiple answers. It involves thinking laterally, not just in or convergent ways.  Divergent thinking usually occurs in a spontaneous, free-flowing and non-linear manner. Einstein was a strong divergent thinker. The strategies for encouraging divergent thinking include brainstorming, keeping a journal, free- writing and mind mapping.

1. Expand ideas and defer judgement

2.  Create and accept plenty of ideas

3.  Combine ideas and consider novelty

4.   Break paradigms and generate strange ideas.

Commandments of divergent thinking (M.D. Jones)

1. The more the ideas, the better – “Quantity breeds quality.”
2.  Build on other ideas –expand the range of options, perspectives and elements.
3. Seek wild and unusual ideas –wacky ideas incite humour and open up many paths.
4.  Don’t evaluate ideas – suspend judgment.  

Forms of divergent production (Paul Torrance 1915-2003)

1.  Fluency –generating many ideas.
2. Flexibility – generating different types of ideas.
3. Originality – generating novel ideas.
4.  Elaboration – building on and developing ideas.

Rules of convergent thinking

 Convergent thinking processes move from data, clues or parts of a problem to a specific idea. Convergent thinking involves analysis of ideas and synthesis in to concepts, evaluation and prioritization of concepts. Convergent thinking narrows down a large number of ideas through the process of analysing, sorting, judging, eliminating and selecting (directed thinking). Convergent thinking emphasizes accuracy, correctness and effectiveness. In convergent thinking, there is usually one conclusion or answer that is regarded as unique and thinking is channelled or controlled in the direction of that answer. Convergent thinking allows us to use our knowledge to examine concepts. Convergent thinking is particularly appropriate in science, maths and technology. Convergent thinking is essentially about traditional problem solving.

1. Be systematic and analyse the objectives
2.  Evaluate the ideas using rules of logic
3. Use intuition
4. No paradigm breaking and draw a best answer.

Advantages

Convergent and divergent thinking skills are both important to critical thinking. Convergent and divergent thinking tools are extremely helpful when making decisions. Creative achievement requires a complex combination of both divergent and convergent thinking. In the generation stage, teams or individuals use divergent thinking to develop novel ideas. In the application stage, they use convergent thinking to make those ideas useful. Divergent thinking is the wellspring of invention. In academic settings, when a student takes a multiple choice exam, he tries to find out the right answer from a set of incorrect options. Most training in schools encourages convergent thinking. 

                                      "Diverge before you converge"
                                       "Not all thinking is the same"

Lifelong self-directed learning

Self-directed learning (SDL) is listed as a key component of the 21^st century skill for adult learners. Self-directed learning is viewed as a process “in which a learner assumes primary responsibility for planning, implementing and evaluating the learning process” (Brockett and Hiemstra 1991). Self –directed learners learn more things and learn better than teacher –directed learners (TDL). The goal of lifelong learning is to equip people with skills and competencies to continue their own “self-education” beyond the borders of formal education. Online learning is also closely associated with self-directed learning from both the process and the personal attribute perspective. American Association of Colleges and Universities (2002, 2007) suggests that a major goal of higher education is to create lifelong learners – intentional, independent, self-directed learners, who can acquire, retain and retrieve new knowledge on their own. Now a days there is increasing recognition of the importance self-directed learning within higher education. Knowles (1975) views self-directed learning as an inherent characteristic of adults, closely related to a natural process of professional and psychological development.

Basic ideas of self-directed learning

The concept of SDL consists of three distinctive ideas: (1) A self-initiated process of learning that stresses individual’s ability to plan and manage his/her own learning. (2) An attribute or characteristic of learners with personal autonomy as its hallmark. (3) A way of organizing instruction in formal settings that allows for greater learner control (Cafferella 1993). Self-directed learning is also named, “self-teaching, independent learning, autonomous learning, individual learning, self-initiated learning, self-instruction, self-study and self-education.”

Goals of self-directed learning

The goals of SDL can be grouped as follows: (1) to enhance the ability of adult learners to be self directed in their learning ; (2) to foster transformational learning as central to SDL; (3) to promote emancipatory  learning and social action as an integral part of SDL.

Characteristics of self-directed learners

1.    Independent in learning;
2.    Effective in learning;
3.   Accepting of responsibility for learning, and
4.   Able to use problem solving skills.

Competencies for being a self directed learner (Knowles 1995)

1.  Understanding the differences between teacher- directed and self-directed learning;
2.  Determining one’s concept as a self-directed being;
3.  Relating to peers collaboratively and as  resources for learning;
4.  Diagnosing learning needs and formulating objectives;
5.  Viewing teachers as facilitators;
6.  Identifying other resources;
7. Collecting and validating evidence of accomplishments.

Definitions

Knowles (1995) defined SDL as a process in which individuals take the initiative’ without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies and evaluating those learning outcomes.

Self- directed learning is any knowledge, skill, accomplishment or personal development that an individual selects and brings about by his or her own efforts using any method in any circumstances at any time (Gibbons 2002).

Steps in SDL (Knowles 1975)

The learners undergo following steps: (1) climate setting; (2) diagnosing learning needs; (3) formulating learning goals; (4) identifying human and material resources for learning; (5) choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies; and (6) evaluating learning outcomes.

Advantages of SDL

1. Self-directed learning promotes self-confidence, initiative, perseverance and life satisfaction.
2.  Self-directed learning helps learners to be motivated, independent, self-reflective, self-disciplined and goal oriented.
3. Self-directed learning provides opportunities to pursue wider range of interests other than the usual school curriculum.
4. Self-directed learners can gain new skills, knowledge and attitudes to improve their work performances.
5. Self-directed learning in higher education provides opportunities for adult learners to learn how to learn as well as lifelong learning.
6. Self-directed learning can not only leads to be more effective learning, but can also result in immediate professional successes.

Disadvantages of SDL

1.  Self-directed learning is prone to frequent errors.
2.  Self-directed learning is quite time consuming.

Summary

SDL refers to an instructional method. SDL is compatible with any and all learning styles and strategies. SDL is a process of learning appropriate for adults, who weaned away from traditional educational consumption. Self-directed learning is fully an autonomous learning. Personal autonomy is the hallmark of SDL. Self-directed learners take full responsibility for their education. SDL is a process that centres on the activities of planning, implementing and evaluating learning. Self – direction does not mean the learner learns alone or in isolation. SDL occurs outside of formal institutions. SDL is NOT time –dependent.  SDL is a tool for lifelong learning. SDL provides a foundation for transformative learning. Educators can facilitate learners become increasingly able to assume personal responsibility for their own learning (Brockett and Hiemstra1991). Educational institutions  at all levels can prepare learners for a life of self-direction.

   
              Self-direction in learning is a way of life (Brockett and Hiemstra 1991).

Metacognition: thinking about one's thinking

Metacognition refers to critical analysis of thought or purposeful thoughtfulness. Metacognition refers to the knowledge, awareness and control of one’s own thinking and learning. During Metacognition, one can examine one’s own brain’s processing.  Metacognition is a form of cognition, a higher order thinking process or a supervisory or metalevel system which involves active control over cognitive processes. It can be simply described as thinking about thinking or knowing about knowing or cognition about cognition. Metacognition serves many diverse functions. Metacognition plays an important role in communication, reading comprehension, language acquisition, social cognition, attention, self-control, memory, self-instruction, writing, problem solving and personality development (Cooper 1999). Learning is facilitated through the use of metacognitive strategies that identify, monitor and regulate cognitive processes.

Metacognition-meaning and definition

John Flavell, a psychologist of Stanford University is regarded as a foundation researcher in metacognition.  Metacognition was first coined by Flavell In the mid 1970s. The term Metacognition as used by Flavell (1979) refers to an individual’s awareness of his/her cognitive processes and strategies. The word “Metacognition” combines the prefix “meta” (derived from Greek meaning after, behind, or beyond) with cognition which refers to the process of knowing (derived from a Latin verb meaning “to learn or to know). Metacognition is described as the ability to monitor, regulate and select strategies in doing a task. The strategies can include any methods, thoughts, beliefs, practices, tricks, behaviours or moods that are specifically cultivated to improve one’s ability to learn.

Metacognition is important because it affects acquisition, comprehension, retention and application of what is learned. In addition it may affect critical thinking, problem –solving and decision making.  Metacognition include both knowledge and strategy components. Cognitive and metacognitive strategies are closely intertwined and dependent upon each other. Metacognition involves information processing activities. Metacognition refers to thinking that enables the understanding, analysis and regulation of thought processes. Metacognition is defined as thinking about one’s thoughts (Harris and Hodges 1995). The National Research Council (2001) defines Metacognition as “the process of reflecting on and directing one’s own thinking.”

Metacognitive components

Metacognition consists of two complementary elements such as metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation (Flavell 1979).

Metacognitive knowledge – awareness of one’s thinking – refers to what the learner knows and understands about the task in hand.

Metacognitive regulation – the ability to manage one’s own thinking processes –refers to the strategies the learner uses to complete the task.

Flavell (1979) describes three kinds of metacognitive knowledge.

1.Awareness of knowledge –understanding what one knows, what one does not know and what one wants to know.
2. Awareness of thinking – understanding cognitive tasks and the nature of what is required to complete them.
3. Awareness of thinking strategies – understanding approaches to directing learning.

There are three kinds of content knowledge. Researches support the claim that skilled learners possess declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge about cognition. This knowledge usually improves learner’s performance.

1.Declarative knowledge – knowing ‘about’ things – knowledge of one’s own learning processes and about strategies.
2. Procedural knowledge – knowing ‘how’ to do things – knowing what skills and strategies to use and how to apply them.
3. Conditional knowledge – knowing ‘when’ and ‘why’ to apply different cognitive actions- knowledge about why and when various learning strategies should be used.

Metacognitive regulation refers to a set of activities help learners to control their learning. It includes three essential skills:

1. Planning – involves working out how a task might be approached before you do it.
2. Monitoring – refers to the learners on –task awareness of progress, comprehension and overall performance.
3. Evaluation – requires the learner to review the outcomes and efficiency of the learning experience e.g. revisiting goals and conclusions.

Metacognitive levels of thought

1.Tacit –thinking without thinking about it;
2. Aware –thinking and being aware that you are thinking;
3. Strategic – organizing our thinking by using strategies that enhance its efficacy; and
4. Reflective – reflecting on our thinking (pondering how to proceed and how to improve; Swartz and Perkins 1990).

Metacognition and learning

Metacognition allows learners to take charge of their own learning. It involves awareness of how they learn, an evaluation of their learning needs, generating strategies to meet these needs and then implementing the strategies (Hacker 2009). Metacognitive strategies in learning include planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it taking place, monitoring of one’s comprehension and evaluating the learning outcomes. Monitoring and reflecting on the process and products of one’s own learning is crucial to successful learning as well as to learning how to learn. Metacognitive knowledge is crucial for efficient independent learning because it fosters forethought and self- reflection. John Dewey often considered the father of progressive education, viewed reflection as a central part of active learning. Metacognitive skills are essential for lifelong learning. Metacognition helps the learners to understand how they learn, their strengths and their needs and better understand the learning process. Palinscar and Brown suggested four concrete teachable metacognitive learning activities: summarizing, questioning, clarifying and predicting.  Ann Brown and her colleagues (1983) describe three ways we direct our own learning:

Planning approaches to tasks –identifying the problem, choosing strategies, organizing our thoughts and predicting outcomes.

Monitoring activities during learning – testing, revising and evaluating the effectiveness of our strategies and

Checking outcomes – evaluating the outcomes against specific criteria of efficiency and effectiveness.

Metacognition and reading

Metacognition plays an important role in reading comprehension. Metacognitively skilled readers are readers who are aware of knowledge, procedures and controls of the reading process. They use this knowledge during the reading process to improve reading and comprehension ability. Reading comprehension refers to the ability of readers to understand the surface and the hidden meanings of the text using metacognitive strategies.  The reading strategies include metacognitive components such as inferring, self-questioning, monitoring, ‘fixing’ and summarizing. Reading for meaning involves the metacognitive activity of comprehension monitoring and reading for remembering includes identifying important ideas, testing one’s mastery of material, developing effective study strategies and allocating study time appropriately.

Metacognition and listening

Metacognition has a lot to offer to listening comprehension.   Metacognitive strategies for listening include analysing requirements of a listening task, activating appropriate listening process required, making appropriate predictions, monitoring their comprehension and evaluating the success of their listening approach (Vandergrift 1997).

Metacognition and problem –solving

 Research has shown that one of the key traits good problem solvers possess is highly developed metacognitive skills and are generally self-aware thinkers. Davidson, Deuser and Sternberg (1994) identified four metacognitive processes that may be applicable in solving problems: identifying and defining a problem, mentally representing the problem, planning how to proceed and evaluating what you know about your performance.  Some of the metacognitive processes involved in problem solving situations include self-planning, self-monitoring, self-regulating, self-reflecting and/or self-reviewing.  Learners with superior metacognitive abilities are better problem – solvers.

Benefits of metacognition

Metacognition is important for the development of critical thinking and effective learning (Larkin2000). Metacognition once learned, supports reflective thinking, helps problem solving, gives responsibility and improves self-confidence for quicker decisions for the rest of one’s life (Kuiper 2002). Metacognition plays a pivotal role in oral comprehension, reading comprehension, problem solving, attention, memory, social cognition, certain types of self-control and self – instruction (Gama2000). Metacognition is closely intertwined with learning to learn, life-long learning, flexible learning, independent learning, and gaining responsibility for learning (Yurdakul 2004). Metacognition is important in project work because learners must make decisions about what strategies to use and how to use them. Metacognitive skills have a positive influence on both problem solving (Schoenfeld 1987) and mathematical problem solving (Hacker 1998). Metacognition enable educators to teach students how to learn as well as what to learn. Metacognitive knowledge is critical in guiding the writing process. As noted by Strickland (1972) “The quality of what is expressed in writing depends upon the quality of thinking that undergirds it.”

Concluding thoughts

Metacognition enables a critical awareness of one’s thinking and learning and oneself as a thinker and learner. Metacognition is crucial to effective thinking and competent performance. Good metacognitive thinkers are also good intentional learners. The function of cognition is to solve problems. The function of Metacognition is to regulate a person’s cognitive operation in solving a problem or executing a task (Vos 2001). “To make an individual metacognitively aware is to ensure that the individual has learned how to learn” (Garner 1988).

The properties of human brain and brain - based learning

The brain is an organ that receives, registers and processes information. It is the most delicate and the most complicated organ. The human brain is a watery gelatinous mass of nerve cells or neurons. Neurons are the basic building blocks of human brain. Neurons communicate with one another through synapses. Recent report indicates that an average human brain has about 23 billion neurons (Rabinowicz et al 2002). Each of the neuron has about 60,000 to 100,000 synaptic connections and has a total number of synaptic connections of about 1027 . The human brain is connected to 30,000 miles (50,000 kms) of nerves. The neurons are arranged end to end and the neurotransmitters transfer signals across the gaps (synapses) of 0.02 to 0.05 microns. The brain is a dense web of interconnecting synapses. Neurons communicate using electrical impulses. The neurons actually make up less than a tenth of the cells in the brain. The other 90-98% by number is glial cells, which are involved in development and maintenance.

Computational power of human brain

The estimated computational power of the human brain is about 1013 to 1016 operations per second. The speed of conduction of message is 200 miles per hour. The performance of a brain depends upon not on the number of neurons, but upon the information network (neural pathways) and the number of synapses. The neural pathways are both the network along which energy travels and the pattern through which information is processed in the brain. The number of synapses inside a human brain is directly related to intellectual and academic performance, activities that are centered in the human cerebrum.
The human being has the highest ratio of weight of the brain to the total body weight. The human brain weighs about 1.5 kgs, about 2 percent of body weight. The brain requires 15 percent of the blood, 40- 50 percent of the oxygen supply and 25 percent of the calories we consume. A 15 sec blockage of blood to the brain will result in unconsciousness. The brain cells are sensitive to oxygen availability. The brain cells have the ability of dividing and giving rise to new healthy cells, most particularly in the hippocampus, the area most crucial to learning and memory.
              “The human brain, then is the most complicated organization 
                  of matter that we know”--Isaac       Asimov.

Growth stages of human brain 

First increase occurs at the age of two, when a child starts to walk and begin to talk.
The second increase occurs at the age of six, when the child begins to learn to read and do math. The third increase occurs at the age of twelve, when he or she begins to grasp abstract and logical concepts. The various regions of the brain develop at different rates in different people. No two people’s brain stores the same information in the same way in the same place. Biologically the brain processes 400 billion bits of information per second, but is only aware of 2000 bits any one time.

Functional properties of human brain 

The brain expands with use – the more the brain is used, the more memory associations are formed. No new nerve cells develop in the brain after birth but new synapses do seem to grow and develop. New neural circuits and networks form between the neurons.
The brain loves to explore and make sense of the world – human brain is endlessly seeking to make sense of what it experiences. The brain seeks to establish new networks to process and store knowledge. The brain’s design strikes a balance between circuit performance and circuit plasticity. More plasticity exists in cortical circuits, where new dendrites can grow and synaptic connections can be made throughout life.
The brain is a pattern detector – the brain makes sense of the world by constructing or mapping patterns of the world. Nature exists as patterns. The recognition function of the brain involves ‘pattern matching’.
The brain is ‘born’ prematurely – much of its development occurs after birth and for many years afterwards. Experience can shape the brain. Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to change as a result of experience. A creative brain is flexible and imaginative.
Every brain is wired differently – the rate of neural growth seems to match the intensity of real-world learning. Learning results in growing new neural networks i.e. new knowledge structures. Learners of the same age show a great deal of intellectual variability.
The brain’s ability of attention – the brain naturally focuses on concepts sequentially, one at a time. The brain operates on alternating cycles of high attention and periods of inattention. During the period of inattention, the brain engages in the process of questioning, revising, one’s understanding etc. in order to comprehend i.e. ‘concept consolidation’.
Exercise boosts brain power – Exercise stimulates one of the brain’s most powerful growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor(BDNF), which aids in the development of new cells in the brain. Exercise increases blood flow to the brain and the blood brings glucose, oxygen and proteins. Proteins encourage neurogenesis
The brain does not act as a computer in a linear fashion- The brain uses multiple strategies to create meaning. The brain is incapable of multitasking.
The brain does not perform well under too much stress – stressed brain doesn’t learn at all. Stress hormones interfere with the hippocampus’s ability to grow new neurons. Stress causes brain damage.
Every brain simultaneously perceives and creates parts and wholes- The brain is a parallel processor. Thoughts, emotions and imagination operate simultaneously. The brain understands and remembers best when facts are embedded in natural spatial memory.
The brain is a social organ- it develops better in concert with other brains.

                               
                                         The more you use,
                                         The more you get.

Functional units of human learning

The human brain is composed of thousands of functional modules i.e., mini-brains within a brain. It is through multiple, complex combinations of these functional modules, through a myriad of interconnections that our brains create functional neural systems.  The functional unit of the mental activity is not the single neuron but a circuit of interconnecting neurons all activated at the same time (neural networks). Environmental stimulation can increase the numbers of neural connections and the strength of connections. Learning is a process that establishes new connections among networks and the new skills or knowledge that learned is neural circuits and networks. The brain is continually resculpting itself in response to experience and learning.

Brain plasticity and learning

Marvin Minsky (1986) in his book ‘The Society of Mind’ quoted as ‘The principal activities of brains are making changes in themselves.’ The brain’s ability to change with experience is called plasticity. The brain is a pliable organ like plastic, hence the term brain plasticity. The plasticity does not mean large-scale physical rearrangement of regions of brain tissue. The changes occur only in the internal structure (microstructure) of the brain, not its overall shape. The education is functional plasticity i.e., the ability to change behaviour following external or internal experiences. The functional plasticity refers to the growing, dropping and strengthening of neural networks.

Brain – based learning, BBL

The brain is extremely complex, dynamic and adaptive (plasticity) system. The brain consists of hundreds of billions of neurons and inter-neurons that produce an enormous number neural nets or groups of neurons working together, from which our daily experience is created. The brain’s activity is controlled by genetics, development, experience, culture, environment and emotions.

According to Eric Jensen (2000) brain – based learning is “learning in accordance with the way the brain is naturally designed to learn.” According to Fishback (1999), “the creation of neural networks and synapses are what constitutes learning.”
There are billions of neurons and the number of synapses is more than 10,000 times the number of neurons (Hill, 2001). ‘A single neuron can have from a few thousand up to one hundred thousand synapses and each synapse can receive information from thousands of other neurons(“The neurons that fire together wire together”). The resulting 100 trillion synapses make possible the complex cognition of human learners.’

Neural changes during learning

The physical brain is literally shaped by experience; axonal circuits change, modify and redevelop as human’s age. The human brain actually maintains an amazing plasticity throughout life. This means that any learner can increase their intelligence, without limits, using proper enrichment (Jensen 2000).
Neuronal growth is initiated by learning followed by assimilation and accommodation. In assimilation, the incoming information is changed to fit in to existing knowledge structures. Accommodation occurs when an existing cognitive structure (i.e., current neuronal circuits) is changed to incorporate new information (Ally 2004). The human brain is always looking to associations between incoming information and experience. The greater the amount of information and experience, the brain extracts and ‘compartmentalizes’ (lateralizes) the information (Jensen 2000). Thereafter the brain creates patterns of meaning. The pattern making depends on past information or experience. According to Jensen (2000), ‘Learning is best when focused, diffused, and then focused again.’ Jensen (2000) explained that proper environment is important for learning to occur. Color, hydration, visual stimuli, psychological stimuli, seasons, temperatures, plants, music, noise and aromas can all influence learning. Learning engages the entire physiology, physical development (stress, diet, exercise ), personal comfort and emotional state will affect the brain. All learning involves our body, emotions, attitudes and physical well being.

Educational neuroscience

Education is about enhancing learning and neuroscience is about understanding the mental processes involved in learning (Report by the Royal Society, UK, 2011). The goal of educational neuroscience is to work out how all learners can be helped to achieve their learning potentials and to make learning more effective for all learners. Neuroscientists investigate the processes by which the brain learns and remembers from molecular and cellular processes right through to how brain systems function.
                             To make life and success easier,
                                Take better care of your brain.

“Brain is an apparatus with which we think that we think”.
                         –Ambrose Bierce, 1911.
“The human brain functions as a high speed internet system. 
 The quality of the brain’s connections is the key to its speed,
 bandwidth, fidelity and overall on-line capacity” (Dr.George Bartzokis).

Maximizing the learning abilities

Learning is a process of storage of knowledge (knowledge construction process) in our memory.  “Learning is a process as well as an outcome” (Zuber-Skerritt1992). Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience ( Kolb 1984).Learning is the major process of human adaptation. Learning is ‘sense making’. All learners are meaning makers. Learning is the process that underlies and gives birth to change. Change is the child of learning (Friedlander,1983).  Learning is a cognitive process of acquiring new skills, knowledge and attitude. Learning is repeated experience, modulated by attention and weighted by emotional relevance. Different people learn information in different ways. There are 4 requirements of learning: motivation, time, preparation and method. All human beings are born with an astounding capacity to learn, both in amount that can be learned in one domain and in the variety and range of what can be learned. Learning is a multi-step process such as acquisition, retention and retrieval. Learning is an ongoing and never ending process. It begins at the moment of birth and continues through an entire lifespan. Learning is the act of interpreting experience and the interpretation is based on the individual’s process of sense making.

There are 3 stages in learning such as registering the item, filing the item and retrieving the item. The learning involves techniques, motives, attitudes and definitions.
 Learning depends upon priority, intensity and duration.
There are four elements that constitute successful learning.  

1. Wanting – motivation
2. Doing – practice, trial and error
3. Feed back – seeing the results; other people’s reactions
4. Digesting – making sense of it; gaining ownership.

According to holistic learning theory, an individual personality consists of many elements such as the intellect, emotions, the desire, intuition and imagination. All require activation, if learning is to be more effective.

Basic views about learning

Learning is a natural process. The natural tendency of the brain is to learn, however not everyone learns in the same way. Learning is a social process. Students learn best in collaboration with peers, teachers, parents and others. Learning is an active process. Learning is an activity in which learners participate and are directly involved. Learners must be actively engaged in learning process. Learning can be either linear or non-linear process. Learning is a reorganization of knowledge structures. Mind is a wonderful parallel or serial processor. Learning is integrative and context –based. Learners themselves see relations and make connections. Teachers can help learners to make connections and to integrate knowledge. Learning is based on a strength model of student abilities, interest and culture.  Learning causes a relatively permanent change in the behaviour –attitude, interest or value.  The change may be an improvement of a skill or process. It may be a modification where old knowledge, skills and abilities or attitudes are adjusted to cope with new circumstances.

Characteristics of learning

Pedler (1997) identified 4 different aspects of learning. Students can learn about things. Students acquire and understand the knowledge. Students can learn to do things. Students acquire new skills, abilities and competencies. Students can learn to achieve full potential in their lives. Students want personal development involving intellectual growth and skill acquisition. Students can learn to achieve things together which Pedler calls collaborative enquiry – to do things together.

Learning- based changes in the brain

Learning takes place in the brain in three major stages:

 Some of the brain's 100 billion nerve cells (neurons) sprout branching fibres (axons and dendrites). All learning enters through our senses/emotions. This is the first stage of learning. As these neural fibres grow, they construct electrically and chemically activated connections (synapses) with other neurons and communicate, neuron to neuron, at these synapses. The  brain patterns and constructs mental maps of information. The brain actively binds ideas together through neural networking. This second stage of learning is more productive. As this neural growth continues, ever-more neural pathways and synaptic connections are constructed until there is a complex network of connections between many neurons for that particular object of learning. This is complex, high-level and in-depth learning. According to Jeannett Vosss and Gordon Dryden in their book ‘the learning revolution’ stated that learning to store information in patterns and with strong associations is probably the first step in developing our brain’s untapped ability.

Kinds of learners

Researchers and educators categorised learners into three types like lookers, listeners and movers. The lookers are visual learners who rely on the sense of sight, when absorbing information. Text, diagrams, photograph, charts, graphs and maps are all tools that aid visual learning. The listeners are auditory learners with a preference for sounds and words over information taken in by either sight or touch. The movers are tactile (kinaesthetic) learners preferring hands-on learning through both touch and movement. It emphasizes the need to touch objects and move one’s body.

Principles of learning (Svinicki, 1991)

If information is to be learned, it must first be recognized as important. During learning, learners act on information in ways that make it more meaningful by using examples, images, elaborations and connections. Learner store information in long – term memory in an organized fashion related to their existing understanding of the world. Learners continually check understanding, which results in refinement and revision of what is retained. Transfer of learning to new contexts is not automatic but results from experience to multiple applications. Learning is facilitated, when learners are aware of their learning strategies and monitor their use.

Categories of learning

Formal learning – takes place in educational institutions.

Non – formal learning – takes place outside and through the activities of civil society, groups and organizations.

Informal learning – is a natural accompaniment to everyday life.

Lifelong learning – is learning throughout life either continuously or periodically.

Life wide learning – can take place across the full span of our lives at any one stage in our lives.

Social learning – can take place in a social setting or context. Social interaction allows learners to relate or mirror their ideas, insights, experiences and feelings to those of others.

Kinds of learning systems

Natural learning system- the brain has natural learning systems such as emotive, cognitive, physical, social, and reflective.

Cognitive learning system – cognition interprets, stores and retrieves information via pattern and pictures. It establishes integrated circuits of knowledge and skills.

Physical learning system – it gathers information through all senses. It distributes information throughout the brain and the body. It converts inputs into action.

Social learning system – it governs interactions and communications with others. Team work and team accomplishment are integral to integrated system.  People works together in pairs or small groups to solve problems.

Emotional learning system – involves personal meaning and its relevance. It accelerates learning.

It empowers or energises or depresses or stifles all other learning systems. It manages a learner’s motivation, demeanour and creativity.

Reflective learning system – it weighs past, present, and future projections. It interprets verbal and non-verbal cues.  It is a monitoring mechanism and it metacognates information.

Learning tools

Knowledge dissemination tools – are systematic attempts to identify and distribute knowledge and ideas.

Instructional tools – teaching methods used to share knowledge and ideas.

Research and development tools – are designed to generate new discoveries through organized inquiry.

Diagnostic tools are designed to evaluate the learning that takes place in a learner.

Learning how to learn (individual learning) – may be defined as the capacity to build knowledge on their own. Learning is an individual process. It takes place inside an individual’s brain.

Kolb’s Learning cycle

Kolb's four-stage model is a simple description of the learning cycle which shows how experience is translated through reflection into concepts, which in turn are used as guides for active experimentation and the choice of new experiences. Kolb refers to these four stages as: concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC) and active experimentation (AE).

1. Concrete experience (CE)–having a new experience of situation or reinterpretation of existing experience.

2. Reflective observation (RO) – reviewing/ reflecting on the experience.
3. Abstract conceptualization(AC) –formation of abstract concepts (analysis)by reflection and generalization (conclusion)
4. Active experimentation (AE) – planning and trying out what one have learned.

Kolb’s learning style

Diverging (feeling and watching - CE/RO) -The people with diverging abilities are able to look at things from different perspectives. They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather information and use imagination to solve problems. They have broad cultural interests and like to gather information. They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and tend to be strong in the arts. They prefer to work in groups, to listen with an open mind and to receive personal feedback.

Assimilating (watching and thinking - AC/RO)

People with an assimilating learning style are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts.  They are more attracted to logically sound theories rather than approaches based on practical value. These people are important for effectiveness in information and science careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through.

Converging (doing and thinking - AC/AE)

People with a converging learning style can solve problems and they prefer technical tasks. They  are less concerned with people and interpersonal aspects. People with this learning style are best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding solutions to questions and problems. People with a converging style like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and to work with practical applications.

Accommodating (doing and feeling - CE/AE)

The Accommodating learning style is 'hands-on', and relies on intuition rather than logic. These people use other people's analysis, and prefer to take a practical, experiential approach. They are attracted to new challenges and experiences, and to carrying out plans. This learning style is prevalent within the general population.

Effective learning tips from theories of learning

1. Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception. People learn best when solving realistic problems. Learning involves search for meaning and patterning. Learning is influenced by emotions, feelings and attitudes (Brain-based learning).
2. Learning is based on neuro-sensation (smell, sight, taste, hearing and touch) and occurs in stages, steps or levels and is most effectively stored, recalled and utilized. Learning is strengthened by rich sensory, emotive and kinaesthetic association (Neuro-biological learning theory).
3. Learning new knowledge is dependent on what is already known. New knowledge gains meaning when it can be largely related to a framework of existing knowledge (Meaningful learning theory).
4. Verbal learning is most effective when accompanied by visual learning (Dual coding theory).
5. Learning can be achieved more as a direct participation and reflection of every day experience (Experiential learning).
6. Learning is centred around the need to find a solution to real problem (Action learning)
7. Learning occurs more when actively searching for information (Discovery learning).
8. Optimum learning occurs when the load on the working memory is kept to a minimum to facilitate the changes in long term memory (Cognitive load theory).
9. A learner is able to use prior knowledge and experience to interpret the content. New information is compared to existing cognitive structures called schema (Schema theory of learning). Learning is much easier if connections are made between ideas and facts.
10. Learning can be maximised by learning of rule –based or information – based categories or exemplars or prototypes. (Category learning).
11. Learners actively construct and reconstruct knowledge out of their experience in the world. Reflection and metacognition are essential aspects of constructing knowledge and meaning (Constructivist learning theory).
12. If learning is to be effective, it should involve all aspects of an individual’s personality such as the intellect, emotions, the desire, intuition and imagination (Holistic learning theory).

"Our brain is best at learning what it needs to learn
  to survive, socially, economically, emotionally and physically."

"The capacity to learn is a gift;
  the ability to learn is a skill;
  the willingness to learn is a choice." -Brian Herbert.

Lifelong learning (LLL)

Learning can occur in education or training institutions, the work place, the family or cultural and community settings. Learning is intrinsic and we engage in learning throughout our whole lives. Lifelong learning is a continuum that occurs from cradle to grave. Lifelong learning enables individuals of all ages to better informed and more active citizens, contributes to their personal well being and fulfillment, supports their creativity and innovation and encourages their full economic and societal participation. Lifelong learning refers to all purposeful learning activities, both formal and informal, that take place throughout our lives.

Definition

Lifelong learning (LLL) is “all purposeful learning activity, undertaken on an ongoing basis with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and competence”(The European Commission, 2000). Learning through life is about acquiring and updating all kinds of abilities, interests, knowledge and qualifications from the schools/universities to post retirement life. Lifelong learning is the continuous building of skills and knowledge throughout the life of an individual. Lifelong learning (LLL) encompasses the whole range of learning that includes formal, informal and non-formal learning.

Need for lifelong learning

The knowledge – based economy, new technologies and globalization all influence the needs to the population’s skills and competences (Laal and Salamati, 2012). Knowledge is being produced at an increasingly rapid pace and technologies become increasingly complex. Educators and employers are discovering that the changing demands of today’s workplace call for workers who are adaptable to change and know how to enhance their job skills.  Lifelong learning helps them acquire new knowledge and skills and helps them to adapt to the current technological change.

Perspectives

Self-directed learning –lifelong learning emphasize the need for individuals to take responsibility for their own learning.

Informal learning – learning in the information age is moving out of the school/universities into home, the community and the workplace. Informal learning is considered as a general life function.

Self-funded learning – it is the responsibility of an individual to finance their own continuing education. The West Report (1998) defines a lifelong learner as a person, who undertakes responsibility for their own learning and who is prepared to invest time, money and effort in education or training on a continuous basis.

Universal participation – the lifelong learning is necessary for social cohesion in a time of rapid economic and social change.

4 – pillars of a learning society

Jacques Delors report proposes four characteristics of lifelong learners.

Learning to do – acquiring and applying skills for the present and future environments.

Learning to be – promoting creativity and personal fulfillment.

Learning to know – self motivated learning is flexible, critical and capable.

Learning to live together – developing community tolerance, interpersonal understanding and mutual respect.

Benefits

 Lifelong learning is a continuously supportive process which stimulates and empowers individuals to acquire all the knowledge, values, skills and understanding they will require throughout their lifetimes and to apply them with confidence, creativity and enjoyment in all roles, circumstances and environment (Longworth and Davies, 1996). Lifelong learning (LLL) leads to an enriching life of self-fulfillment and meaning. It helps them to make new friends and valuable relationships. It keeps a lifelong learner involved in active contributors to society. It creates a curious, hungry and open mind to increase their wisdom. It helps them to adapt to change and makes the world a better place to live. It not only enhances social inclusion, active citizenship and personal development, but also competitiveness and employability. It makes communities more productive and innovative as workers creative and discover new abilities and ideas. It strengthens the economy. A stronger economy means citizens benefit from the chance to earn more, live better and contribute to the economic system (Canlearn,2009).

Inspiring quotes on Lifelong learning

"As long as you live, keep learning how to live." -Seneca.

"Continuous learning is a minimum requirement for 
 success in any field." -Unknown author.

"I am still learning." - Michelangelo, age 87.

"The minute you stop learning, you stop growing."-Amy Deagle.

"Learning is not a race for information,
   it's walk of discovery." - Unknown author.

"Commit yourself to lifelong learning. The most valuable asset 
you'll ever have is your mind and what you put into it."  - Brian Tracy.