Health benefits of edible seaweeds

Oceans cover approximately 71 percent of the earth’s surface (362 million square km) and contain 95 percent of the habitat space on the planet. The ocean is the richest reservoir of both living and non-living resources. The marine environment comprises approximately half of the total global biodiversity. Seaweeds are one of the constituents of natural resources globally used for human welfare. Seaweed is the common term used to refer large marine algae growing in the shallow waters along the ocean shores. There are about 8000 species of seaweeds along the world’s coastal lines. In general seaweeds inhabit about 2% of the sea floor. Ecologically seaweed account for food and shelter for marine life.
Seaweeds are used as human food, livestock feed and fertilizer for land crops in many countries. More than 160 species of sea vegetables commonly known as seaweeds are consumed throughout the world.  Seaweeds can be consumed directly as raw, dried or cooked. Seaweeds are eaten for their food value, flavours, colours and textures and are typically combined with other types of food. Edible seaweeds include Porphyra (Nori), Rodymenia (Dulse), Laminaria(Kombu), undaria (Wakame) and Ulva (sea lettuce). Edible seaweeds have been shown to be high in essential pigments, vitamins, minerals, trace elements, proteins and phytochemicals as well as healthy dietary fibers and fats.

Worldwide consumption of seaweeds

Seaweed is consumed in many traditional European societies, in Iceland and western Norway, the Atlantic coast of France, northern and western Ireland, Wales and some coastal parts of South West England as well as Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. Traditionally, sea vegetables have been more commonly eaten in Asian cultures. In many countries in Asia notably in China, Japan, Korea and Indonesia, seaweed products are important dietary resources, which constitute a substantial part of the total food intake (staple food). In  Philippines, Burma and Vietnam several species of seaweeds are eaten as a salad or in one form or another. The most commonly consumed seaweeds which grow in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans are alaria, arame, hijiiki, nori, dulse and several kinds of kelp. Porphyra sp. which is commercially known as nori or laver is most widely consumed among edible red seaweed worldwide (Watanable  et al 1999). Nori is commonly eaten by the Japanese. The brown seaweed Sargassum (Gulfweed, sea holly) is used in soups and soy sauce. 

Definition of seaweeds

Edible seaweeds are algae that can be eaten and used in the preparation of food. It Typically contains high amounts of fiber  and they contain a complete protein. They may belong to one of several groups of multicellular algae: the red algae, green algae and brown algae (ref: en.wickipedia.org).

Kinds of seaweeds

Seaweeds are plants, though less complex ones than land plants. Without roots or intricate tissues, seaweed must absorb nutrients from the sea water. To survive, they form root-like parts to attach themselves to rocks or other stable items. Seaweeds are mainly classified into 3 major classes based on their pigmentation namely brown, red and green algae which are referred to as phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceae and Chlorophyceae respectively (Khan et al. 2010). Three basic classes of pigments found in marine algae are chlorophylls, carotenoids and phycoerythrin.  Green seaweeds such as sea lettuce mainly contain chlorophyll. Red seaweeds which include dulse, laver,nori, agar and Irish moss have red pigment, phycoerythrin. Brown seaweeds such as kelp, kombu, alaria, arame, wakame , seapalm and hiijiki depend on brown pigments from other carotenoid

Proximate composition of seaweeds

Seaweeds are high in ash (37-46%) and dietary fibers (25-40%) and low in lipid content (0.29-1.11%) on dry weight basis. The protein content of many seaweeds ranges between 4 and 25% of the dry weight. Generally the protein content of brown algae is low (3-15% of dry weight) compared with that of green (10-26% of dry weight) and red algae (35-47% of dry weight) (Fitzgerald et al. 2011). The lipids present in seaweeds are rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in particular EPA and to a lesser extent DHA, which are important to human health. Seaweeds contain 33-62% total fibers on a dry weight basis. The sulphated polysaccharides present in red and brown algae act as dietary fibers. The major seaweed colloids include agar, algin, carrageenan, and related colloids. These phycocolloids are materials such as gelatine, pectin and starch that have the property of forming gels. Algin is produced from brown seaweeds, while agar and carrageenan are from red algae. The phycocolloids are used as thickeners, humectants, coagulants, bulking agents, flocculation agents and in the preparation of antibiotic carriers. Agar finds much use in bakery products, confectionary making and in puddings, creams and jellied products. Seaweed powders generally contain 10 to 30% minerals, 20 to 45% proteins and up to 40% soluble fibers.

Popular edible seaweeds

The red seaweed, Nori is rich in iodine and iron and quite high in protein. It is also a good source of vitamins C and A, potassium, magnesium and riboflavin (B2) and it is low in fat. Another red seaweed, Dulse is highly nutritious containing protein (10 to 20%), magnesium, iron and B-carotene. Carrageenan and agar are extracted routinely from red algae. Irish moss is rich in retinol and minerals. It is widely used in all sorts of food products because it has emulsifying and jelling properties. The green seaweed, Wakame contains fucoxanthin, calcium, iron, natural sodium and vitamin C.  The brown seaweeds include such familiar forms as rock seaweeds, kelps and sargassum. The brown seaweeds are major sources of iodine. In addition to iodine, the brown seaweed kelp (Kombu) also provides iron, magnesium and  folate (vitamin B9). Kelp is used to be the main source for preventing goitre and treating thyroid conditions.  Sea lettuce and sugar kelp are the two seaweeds popularly eaten by humans. Seaweeds represent one of the most nutritious plant foods. In Asian culture, seaweeds have always been of particular interest as food sources. Seaweeds are ones that can be used in a whole range of ways: as salads, in soups, for sushi, in deserts, in bread, as snacks and in candy or as herbs and flavour enhancers. Seaweeds are most commonly used in soups, as salad garnishes and as a seasoning (in flake forms). Seaweeds are available in health food stores in dried, powder, flake and granular forms.

Health benefits of seaweeds

Edible seaweeds are ideal sources of chemical compounds for improving health and well-being of humans.  Several bioactive substances with antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities have reported from seaweeds. Tumour reductions, inhibition of cancer cell proliferation, free radical scavenging and significant antioxidant activity have been exhibited by red and brown seaweeds. The sulphated polysaccharides found in some of the brown seaweeds are being explored as antiviral agents and as aids in preventing blood clots. Sodium alginate found in brown seaweeds has the ability to protect the surface membranes of stomach and intestine. It acts as a haemostatic agent and has tried in the treatment of esophagitis and urolithiasis.  Fucoidan, a polysaccharide found in brown algae has shown promising antiviral, immunomodulating and antibacterial activities. Fucoidan also inhibits the angiogenesis and proliferation of human cancer cells. Phlorotannins (polyphenols) from brown algae have been shown to possess multiple physiological activities such as antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antiallergic properties. Taurine is an amino acid present in high concentration in red algae. Taurine acts as an antioxidant and reduces serum lipids thereby prevents atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Calcium phosphate in seaweeds helps to reduce osteoporosis by nourishing the bones.  The high content of potassium in seaweed is good for the heart and kidneys. Seaweed nourishes the membranes, making it good for nervous disorders, skin conditions, colds and constipation. The chromium content in seaweeds helps to control blood sugar levels. In general seaweed intake may strengthen the immune system, reduce cholesterol and improve metabolism and digestion. Consumption of seaweed is helpful in combating fatigue caused by slow thyroid activity. Seaweed intake support thyroid function. Dietary intake of brown algae is effective for curing goitre because of their iodine content.

                    Seaweeds are excellent sources of  minerals.

Health benefits of dietary glyconutrients

Glyconutrients are plant carbohydrates. These glyconutrients combine with other molecules, proteins and lipids to form glycoforms or glycoconjugates which coat cell surfaces. There are over 200 carbohydrates or sugars found in natural resources, but only 8 are essential to bodily functions (essential saccharides/sugars). Glyconutrients come from plant roots, mushrooms and other foods and can be taken as dietary supplements.  They enhance cell-to-cell communication, modulate immune function and increase the body’s own production of stem cells. Glyconutrients have been described as “the rising star in the world of alternative medicine.”  Glyconutrients help your body heal, repair, regenerate, regulate and protect itself. Most healthy people can generate every other essential saccharide from glucose.
Glyconutrient compounds were abundant in most primitive diets but they are virtually absent from modern western diets rich in refined foods. Only two of the essential sugars, glucose and galactose are common in our diets. The 8 saccharides (sugars) serve as the building blocks for the manufacture of large molecules made of sugars in combination with proteins or lipids. Glycoproteins are molecules made of sugars and proteins; glycolipids are made of sugars and fats. It is common to refer to the sugars of glycoproteins and glycolipids as glycans. Both glycoproteins and glycolipids are found at the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane. In Greek, glycol means ‘sweet’; glyconutrient literally means ‘sweet nutrient.’ Strangely glyconutrients are not sweet, sometimes they are bitter and some are virtually tasteless.

Definition

Glycobiology is defined as the study of the structure, biosynthesis and biology of saccharides (sugar chains or glycans) that are widely distributed in nature. Sugars are known chemically as saccharides. Glycans   constitute a major portion of a glycoconjugate. The surfaces of most types of cells are effectively covered with a dense coating of sugars giving rise to the so-called glycocalyx (tiny antennae). These tiny antennae allow the cells to interact and to be able to absorb and process nutrients, hormones and other chemicals.

Essential sugars

There are eight essential saccharides our body needs. They are: glucose, galactose, mannose, fucose, xylose, N-acetyl glucosamine, N-acetyl galactosamine and N-acetyl neuroaminic acid (a sialic acid).

Glucose – is the primary source of energy for all plants and animals and is quickly absorbed into the blood stream. It has been shown to enhance memory, stimulate calcium absorption and enhance cell-to-cell communication.

Galactose – is found in dairy products and human breast milk. Galactose enhances wound healing, cell-to-cell communication and calcium absorption. People who are lactose intolerant may be lacking this essential sugar.

Mannose –is most important of all essential sugars. It forms an integral part of the immune system. Its deficiency can lead to inflammation and disease. The mannose sugar can reduce inflammation even in rheumatoid arthritis. 

Fucose –studies have shown that it may help long term memory, prevent respiratory infections and inhibit tumour growth. The glycoconjugates of fucose are essential to controlling inflammation and enhancing immunity.

Xylose – is important for cell-to-cell communication and also acts as an antibacterial and anti-fungal agent.

N-acetyl glucosamine – is an immune modulator and has anti-viral properties.

N-acetyl galactosamine – it helps in cell-to-cell communication.

N-acetyl neuraminic acid (sialic acid) – is important for brain function particularly for development and learning.N-acetyl neuraminic acid is helpful for clearing brain fog. It is found in breast milk, organic hen’s eggs and whey proteins.

Food sources

Glucose – nearly all ripe fruits and vegetables, honey, grapes, bananas, mangos, cherries, strawberries, cocoa, aloe vera, licorice, garlic, Echinacea, hawthorn and kelp (seaweed).

Galactose – dairy products, fenugreek, kelp(seaweed), apple, apricots, bananas, cherries, berries, peach, pear, kiwi, mangoes, avocado,  broccoli, Brussels’ sprouts, cabbage, cucumber, carrot, cauliflower, celery, potato, eggplant, peas, pumpkin, and spinach.

Mannose – Aloe vera, kelp(seaweed), shiitake mushroom, fenugreek, cabbage, eggplant, tomatoes, turnips, and gooseberries.

Fucose – kelp, sea weed,and brewer’s yeast.

Xylose- kelp, guava, pears, black berries, logan berries, rasp berries, aloe vera, Echinacea, boswelia, broccoli, spinach, eggplant, peas, green beans, cabbage and corn.

N-acetyl glucosamine – shiitake mushroom, shark cartilage, beef cartilage and red algae.

N-acetyl galactosamine – beef cartilage, shark cartilage and red algae.

Herbal sources

Aloe vera – There are more than 240 species of aloe which grows in Africa, the Near East, Asia, Europe, the southern Mediterranean and the Americas. The gel of the Aloe vera leaves contains about 200 health promoting compounds including 20 minerals, 18 amino acids and 12 vitamins. The nutrient gel provides your body with 3 glyconutrients such as glucose, mannose and xylose.The Aloe vera gel reduces inflammation, itching, and pain when topically applied on the skin. The Aloe vera juice which is loaded with phytochemicals, minerals, vitamins and amino acids works as an anti-inflammatory agent in the digestive tract and is often used to ease heart burn and constipation.

Mushrooms – edible mushrooms are the richest source of glyconutrients. The health benefits of mushrooms have been known for more than 5000 years. Several varieties of mushrooms offer immunomodulatory, lipid –lowering, anti-tumour and other beneficial or therapeutic health effects without any significant toxicity. Shiitake mushroom is among the foods and herbal medicines in Chinese diet for its ‘anti-aging properties.’ In oriental folk medicine, shiitake mushroom is a food that activates the blood. It is used in the treatments of colds, measles in children, smallpox, bronchial inflammation, stomach-ache, headache, faintness and dropsy (fluid accumulation in tissues).

Shells of crustaceans – one of the essential sugars N-acetyl glucosamine is found in the shell of crustaceans including shrimps, crabs and krill.

Functional role of glycoproteins

Glycoproteins increase natural killer-cell function. These activated killer cells protect the healthy individuals from the effects of toxins and free radicals, which could cause infections and cancer formation. Moreover glycoproteins increase T –cell function and decrease abnormally elevated apoptosis without disturbing the normal balance in the body.

Health benefits

The essential sugars have potent antiviral, antibacterial, antiparasitic and antitumor effects. They increase the body’s immunity to viruses including those that cause the common colds, influenza, herpes and hepatitis. Glyconutrients seem to play an important role in immune and hormonal function. Glyconutrients are essential in cellular communication and are important for pregnant and lactating women. Several studies have linked a deficiency of glyconutrients to diseases such as diabetes, ADHD, lupus, infertility and cancer. Glyconutrients have a role in lowering triglycerides and low-density lipoproteins or LDL (the ‘bad’ cholesterol) and raising high-density lipoproteins or HDL (the ‘good’ cholesterol). Glyconutrients have been quite effective in treating disorders associated with an over-active immune system such as allergies and asthma. Glyconutrients may help relieve symptoms of chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia.  Glyconutrients have produced positive effects in children suffering from ADD (Attention Deficit Disorder) and ADHD ( Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder). Glyconutrients may even inhibit cancerous tumour growth and tumour cell metastasis.
      Intake of glyconutrients  offer healthy functioning of your immune system

Health benefits of acid-alkaline food balance

pH balance is one of the most important factors in maintaining health and life. A normal body pH balance is the first line of defense against aging and disease. All body tissues and organs normally maintain pH within narrow range by carefully balancing acidic and alkaline elements. All disease is caused by autotoxication (self-poisoning) due to acid accumulation in the body. Changes in pH alter virtually all body functions. Prolonged acid-alkali imbalance could lead to degenerative diseases such as diabetes, arthritis, osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease and rapid aging among others. Alkaline substances such as potassium, calcium and magnesium are needed to neutralize the harmful acids and encourage acid excretion. Nutritionally speaking, the alkaline foods provide greater amounts of alkaline substances such as calcium, magnesium and potassium. It is generally accepted that diet is an important source of the alkali and acids one’s body needs. Balance body pH will give you more natural vitality, better metabolism and less internal and external signs of aging.

The acid-alkaline theory of disease

In his book A new Health Era, Dr. William Howard Hay (1933) stated that all disease is caused by acid accumulation in the body. This acid-alkaline theory of disease is an over-simplification. In his book My Journey to the Fountain of Youth, Azahara Carter stated that there are two principles underlying the concept of acid-alkaline balance: first those factors such as diet, age, lifestyle habits and emotional state contribute to an overly acidic system and second that an overly acidic system is a breeding ground for disease. It is probable that the acid –alkaline imbalance can be a large factor in the onset of serious health issues such as osteoporosis, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancers, arthritis, kidney problems, chronic fatigue and many other health challenges.

Acid-forming and alkaline- forming foods

Depending on the chemical composition of the metabolized foods (known as ‘ash’), the foods are categorized in to acid-forming and alkaline forming foods.

Acid-forming foods – these foods are not acidic themselves, but form acids in the body during the metabolic process and digestion e.g. animal fats, fork, poultry, beef, bacon and dairy products.

Acidic foods – these foods are acidic, but can have either an acid-forming or an alkaline forming effect in the body e.g. berries, citrus fruits, pulses and sour milk.

Alkaline foods and alkali-forming foods – The strength of the alkali in alkaline foods does not reflect their alkali forming qualities in the body. Alkali-forming foods are not alkaline themselves, but they possess good alkali- forming and de-acidifying qualities e.g. most fresh vegetables, leafy greens, potato, bananas, spinach, celery and melon.

Health effects of acid/ alkaline imbalance

The acid / alkaline balance in the body is central to good health. The normal waste products of cellular metabolism are acid. The body needs alkaline to balance the acid out and the only source of alkaline is from the food we consume or the correct supplements we take. A healthy diet should consist of approximately 75% alkaline ash-forming foods and 25% acid ash-forming foods. Usually the proportion of acid forming food we consume is much higher than that of alkaline food.

Acidic waste can seriously damage body cells and vital organs. An acidic environment results in lack of energy, chronic fatigue and susceptibility to disease. A build up of acidity decreases the body’s ability to absorb minerals and other nutrients; decrease energy production in cells; decrease the body’s ability to repair damaged cells and decrease its ability to detoxify heavy metals. Most cancer cells thrive in an acidic environment.  Inflammatory disease, arthritis, respiratory conditions and cardiovascular diseases are more prevalent in acidic environment. A build up of acidity prevents body organs from functioning properly, thickens the blood and starts to dissolve the linings of the arteries.

On the other hand an alkaline environment helps to heal the body, slower aging process, and relives suffering from colds, headaches and the flu.

Symptoms of body pH imbalance

The symptoms of excess body acidity include fluctuating energy levels, mental fatigue and dullness, depression, headaches, lower back pain, decreased vitality, irritability and sinus-related problems. The symptoms of excessive alkalinity include tension, nervousness, muscle tension or spasms, slow recovery from injuries and travelling muscle pain.

Nutritional balance

Right combination of green raw foods, whole foods, vegetables, juices, herbs and water will reduce the build up of acid, toxins and free radicals from oxidation and promote a healing body environment.

60/40: To maintain health, the diet should consist of 60% alkaline –forming foods and 40% acid-forming foods.

80/20: To restore health, the diet should consist of 80% alkaline-forming foods and 20% acid-forming foods.

Dr. Robert Young heralds that a diet that is made up of 80% alkaline producing foods and 20% acid producing foods will allow people to achieve their healthier bodies and healthier lives.

Generally alkaline –forming foods include most fruits, green vegetables, peas, beans, lentils, spices, herbs and seasonings, seeds and nuts. Generally acid – forming foods include meat, fish, poultry, dairy, eggs, grains and legumes. Processed, micro-waved, refined and fried foods, soft drinks, alcohol and coffee produce acids.

Concluding remarks

Human body is slightly alkaline and therefore it is better for your health to eat a diet composed of alkaline foods. Disease begins when our bodies turn acidic. In his book How to get well (1984), Paavo Airola, a naturopath said that, “acidosis or over-acidity in the body tissues, is one of the basic causes of disease, especially the arthritic and rheumatic diseases.” Another author Michael Colgan in his book The New Nutrition (1996) mentioned that, “acidosis destroys bones because the body has to steal alkalizing minerals from them to keep the blood pH from dropping into the acid range.” Dr. Otto Heinrich Warburg won the 1931 Nobel Prize in Physiology for proving that cancer can’t survive in an alkaline, oxygen- rich environment, but thrives in an acidic, low-oxygen environment. Our health is directly related to the condition of our internal body fluids. The condition of our internal bodily fluids is directly influenced by the foods we eat and by our daily activities. Eat a diet that helps your body maintain the correct acid-alkaline balance.
              Eat more alkaline foods and less acidic foods
                     Balance your pH for better health.

Health benefits of dietary prebiotics

Prebiotics have been an integral part of normal human diet for many centuaries. Prebiotics are essential specific colonic nutrients that have the potential to considerably influence whole body’s physiology and consequently health and wellbeing. Prebiotics affect specifically and selectively the indigenous beneficial bacteria. Prebiotics are able to alter the colonic microbiota toward a healthier composition by increasing for example, numbers of saccharolytic species while reducing putrefactive microorganisms. Some prebiotics are added to foods to improve food quality characteristics such as mouth feel and other textural aspects. Prebiotics have been used as low calorie fat replacers. Human milk can be considered as the original prebiotic for gut microflora management in breast –fed infants.

Definition

Prebiotic is a non-digestible food ingredient which beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulating the growth of and/ or activating the metabolism of one (or more) health promoting bacteria in the intestinal tract (Gibson and Roberfroid 1995).

A dietary probiotic is a selectively fermented ingredient that allows specific changes, in the composition and/or activity of the gastrointestinal microbiota, thus confers upon host wellbeing and health (Gibson et al 2004).

Prebiotic concept

A prebiotic is a non-digestible food ingredient that beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of bacteria in the colon, and thus improves host health. In order for s food ingredient to be classified as a prebiotic it must

1)  Be neither hydrolysed nor absorbed in the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract;
2) Be a selective substrate for one or a limited number of beneficial bacteria commensal to the colon, which are stimulated to grow and/or are metabolically activated;
3) Consequently, be able to alter the colonic flora in favour of a healthier composition and
4) Induce luminal or systemic effects that are beneficial to the host health.

Synbiotics –probiotics may be used in conjunction with specific substrates (prebiotics) for growth (e.g. a fructooligosaccharide in conjunction with a Bifidobacterial strain or lactitol in conjunction with a lactobacillus organism). This combination could improve the survival of the probiotic organism in the host because its specific substrate is readily available for its fermentation.

Recognized prebiotics

The common prebiotics in use include fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS), galcto-oligosacchardes (GOS),soy-oligosaccharides (SOS), inulins, lactulose and pyredextrins,. The majority of studies carried out to date have focused on inulin, FOS and GOS (Macfarlane et al 2008).

Emergent prebiotics

Emergent prebiotics include genti-oligosaccharides,gluco-oligosaccharides, isomalto-oligosaccharides(IMO),lactosucrose, levans, pectic-oligosaccharides,resistant starch, sugar alcohols and xylo-oligisaccharides (XOS).

Prebiotic mechanism of action

1. Produce short chain fatty acids during fermentation of probiotic carbohydrates.
2. Increase fecal weight and mildly reduce luminal colon pH.
3. Stimulate the growth of carbohydrate fermenting bacteria.
4. Lower the concentration putrefactive, toxic, mutagenic or genotoxic substances.
5. Decrease the concentration of nitrogenous end-products and reductive enzymes.
6. The Bifidobacteria and lactobacilli exhibit low b-glucuronidase and nitroreductase activity.
7. Enhance immunity and modulate mucin production.

Prebiotic food sources

Fructooligosaccharide (FOS) is a naturally occurring prebiotic compound found in many edible sources such as artichokes, bananas, honey, onion, garlic, barley and others. Another prebiotic compound inulin is naturally found in chicory roots, wheat, onion, garlic, bananas, fruits and vegetables.Examples of food sources rich in prebiotics are whole grain, honey, banana, garlic,onion,tomato, leek, artichoke and chicory.

Prebiotic characteristics

1.       Non-digestible or partially digestible

2.       Non-absorbable in the small intestine

3.       Well fermented by beneficial bacteria in the gut and

4.       Selective stimulation of growth and activity of intestinal bacteria.

Metabolic fate of prebiotics

Inulin and oligofructose are not hydrolysed in the mouth, stomach and small intestine. In the large intestine, they undergo complete anaerobic fermentation by bacteria. They do not contribute any calories. They are completely fermented in the colon, so inulin is not excreted in the stool.

Prebiotics and dietary fibres

Prebiotics and dietary fibres are not digested by human digestive enzymes, but prebiotics are fermented selectively in the colon and exert their health effects via colonic microbiota. Dietary fibre on the other hand may not be fermented at all and exert health effects in other ways for example improved bowel function.

Colonic microbial system

The colonic microbial system consists of wide range of bacterial species, a variety of different metabolic niches, bacterial habitats and interrelationships. In general intestinal bacteria may be divided into species that exert either harmful or beneficial effects on the host. Pathogenic or harmful effects include diarrhea, infections, liver damage, carcinogenesis and intestinal putrefaction; health promoting effects may be caused by the inhibition of growth of harmful bacteria, stimulation of immune functions, lowering of gas distension problems, improved digestion and absorption of essential nutrients and synthesis of vitamins.

Health promoting functions of Bifidobacteria

Bifidobacterium is a major group of saccharolytic bacteria in the colon and constitutes up to 25% of the total population in the gut of adult and 95% in the new borns (Kawerze et al 1981). Bifidobacteria produce strong acids as metabolic end products (acetate, lactate), lower the pH and may exert an antibacterial effect. Bifidobacteria produce vitamins largely of the B – group. Bifidobacteria produce certain immunomodulators, which promote immunological attack on malignant cells. Bifidobacteria have been used to restore the normal intestinal flora during antibiotic therapy (Korshunov et al 1985). 

Health benefits of  dietary prebiotics

1)      Increase the absorption of dietary minerals such as calcium, magnesium and iron.

2)      Reduce the risk of colon cancer.

3)      Reduce cholesterol and blood lipids.

4)      Prevent gastrointestinal tract infections.

5)      Increase growth of Bifidobacteria, which has following beneficial effects:

i)        produces nutrients such as B-group vitamins and folic acid.

ii)       Produces digestive enzymes.

iii)     Reduces food intolerance by utilizing residual nutrients from the upper gut.

iv)     Improves nutrient management.

v)      Reduces liver toxins i.e. blood amines and ammonia, by using them as fuels.

vi)     Competitive elimination of pathogenic microorganisms.

Summary

Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients. They are selectively fermented by intestinal bacteria ( e.g. lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria). Potential health benefits of prebiotics include increased bioavailability of dietary minerals and reduced risks of various diseases such as cancer, intestinal infections, cardiovascular disorders, obesity and diabetes. Prebiotics are naturally available in several foods such as whole grains, onion, garlic, bananas, fruits and vegetables.
                            Prebiotics are effective for gut health

Health benefits of dietary probiotics

 Probiotics are live microorganisms that could confer health benefits on the host, when consumed in significant amounts. The term prebiotic literally means ‘for life’ Probiotics have been proven to promote gastrointestinal health and immune function. The normal human  gut flora contains 300-1000 different kinds of bacterial species with about 10¹⁴ individual bacteria. The predominant inhabitants of human gut include Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium.

Definition

The  World Health Organization (WHO) defines probiotics as “live microorganisms which  when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host.”(FAO/WHO, 2001). The term probiotics was coined by the researchers Lilly and Stilwell in their studies in 1965. In 1989, Fuller popularized the term ‘probiotics.’ Dr. Elie Metchnikoff came upon the discovery of the ‘prolongation of life’ through probiotics. He was the first scientist who proposed the therapeutic use of lactic acid bacteria.

Normal intestinal micro flora

Normal intestinal micro flora is largest reservoir of microorganisms mutual to humans. This complex micro ecosystem remains relatively stable in normal health at a given age ( in other words it varies significantly as a function of age). This normal flora colonizes shortly after birth. This micro flora includes high numbers and variety of intestinal bacteria, estimated at 1,013 in the colon and around 400-500 bacterial/fungal species. The intestinal flora comprises 10 times more bacteria than the body cells. The highest number and complexity of bacteria is found in the terminal ileum and colon. The intestinal flora play a significant role in the development of the immune system and in the resistance of infection by pathogens. 

Probiotic hypothesis

The concept behind probiotics is to enhance good bacteria and discourage bad bacteria in the human gastrointestinal tract. Probiotics help to keep bad bacteria away and out of one’s body. Probiotics help to ‘balance the intestinal bacteria i.e. ensure that there are more ‘good’ bacteria than ‘bad’. The ‘good’ bacteria simply ‘crowd out’ disease causing microorganisms, thereby preventing attachment of pathogenic bacteria by a process known as “competitive exclusion” (Kailasapathy and Chin 2000). Human gastrointestinal tract is supposed to contain 85% “good” bacteria and 15% “bad” bacteria.

Characteristics of probiotics

1. Probiotics neither are enzymes, vitamins or minerals nor foreign substances or chemical compounds. Natural probiotics are microorganisms that reside in the ileum (small intestine) and in the colon (large intestine) which have a symbiotic relationship with humans.
2. The most popular probiotic genuses are Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria. Lactobacilli love to live in the small intestine and Bifidobacteria love to live in the colon.
3. Probiotics can resist the effects of digestive enzymes, stomach acid and bile. Probiotics support the intestinal microflora against antagonizing microorganisms. Probiotics promote optimal digestion and absorption of nutrients and promote a healthy digestive tract.
4. Probiotics can assist the gastrointestinal tract to absorb minerals, vitamins and other necessary nutrients and the functions of the immune system. They also exert positive actions at the metabolic level.
5. Probiotics work simultaneously, synergistically and symbiotically with other agents.
6. Probiotics can be used in paediatric medicine for babies and young children. Probiotics are acknowledged by the World Health Organization for the benefits of improving gastrointestinal health.
7. Probiotics never lose their beneficial properties during storage.
8. Probiotics are grown, fermented and cultivated from various media such as dairy, vegetables, beans, beets and others.
9.Manufactured probiotics are controlled bacteria (i.e., friendly, healthy, beneficial bacteria) that are manufactured in controlled laboratory environments.

Probiotic organisms

Members referred to as probiotics are bacteria and fungi, most commonly including species of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium and species of the yeast genus Saccharomyces.  Other bacterial genera which feature prebiotic  strains include Streptococcus, Enterococcus and Bacillus.The members of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium have long history of use and generally recognized as safe (Generally Regarded As Safe,GRAS status).
Lactobacilli which has the ability to produce lactic acid , is classified as Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB). Probiotic species in the Lactobacilli family found in the human body include L.reuteri, L. casei, and L.rhamnosus. Lactobacilli acidopilus is commonly found in yogurt products. Bifidobacteria are norman inhabitants of the human colon. Bifidobacteria can produce lactic and acetic acids and also grouped as Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB). Probiotic species in the Bifidobacteria include B.lactis, B. bifidum and B.longum. Streptococci are also found in dairy products.
  Streptococci thermophilus is commonly used to make yogurt. Enterococcus is a lactic acid – producing bacteria. Two species are commonly found in the intestines of humans: E. faecalis (90-95%) and E.faecium (5-10%). Lactococcus is classified as LAB as the can produce lactic acid.Lactococcus lactis is found in dairy products and is commonly responsible for the souring of milk. The name of the probiotic yeast Saccharomyces is from the Latin meaning ‘sugar fungi.’ Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used in making wine, bread and beer. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is more commonly known as Baker’s yeast.

 Probiotic bacteria used in foods for human consumption are generally of human origin and are non-pathogenic. In addition they retain significant viability during processing and transit through the gut.

Probiotic foods

Yogurt  is a probiotic containing food. Yogurt  has been used in the past to treat diarrhea, prevent urinary tract infections or treat recurrent yeast infections. Probiotic containing foods include aged cheese. Kefir, kimchi, sauerkraut, miso, tempeh,  and some soy beverages. Probiotic commercial products include tomato juice, peanut milk, soymilk, buffalo whey/soy milk  and rice. Probiotics are normally added to foods as a part of the fermentation process. The probiotics involved in food fermentation are mainly Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. Probiotic bacteria may also be available in capsules or as powder.

Mechanism of action of probiotics

Probiotics deliver active constituents to targets in the host gastrointestinal tract. These active constituents include mainly enzymes, and immunomodulatory and antimicrobial components. Probiotic bacteria promotes human health in any of the following mechanism(s): adherence to intestinal mucosa and mucus, production of antimicrobial substances, antagonism against pathogens, competition for adhesion sites (competitive exclsion), interaction with Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (GALT), immune regulation, in-activation of harmful components  within the intestinal contents (binding of toxins), regulation of metabolic activity of intestinal microflora and overall normalization of the intestinal microflora ( Salminen et al 1996, Brassart and Sciffrin 1997).

Health benefits of probiotics

Medical literature supports the use of probiotics for treating a variety of different diseases – ranging from food allergies to ezema; from Crohn’s disease to antibiotic-associated diarrhea. The well documented health benefits of probiotics include the improvement of gastrointestinal health. Probiotics have been documented about the balancing effects on the immune system or enhancing body’s overall resistance to infection.  Probiotics are useful in the prevention or treatment of several gastrointestinal disorders such as infectious diarrhea, antibiotic diarrhea and traveller’s diarrhea. Probiotic therapy can be helpful for people with Crohn’s disease and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) (ref; Nutrition in Clinical Practice).

Probiotics may be beneficial for brain function. Probiotic bacteria may have the potential to change brain neurochemistry and treat anxiety and depression – related disorders (ref: PNAS). Consumption of a formulation of Lactobacillus reuteri NC IMB 30242, is able to reduce blood levels of LDL cholesterol (ref: The American Heart Association Scientific Sessions, 2012). Consumption of Bifidobacterium infantis 35624, may have benefits for patients with psoriasis and chronic fatigue syndrome. Probiotics can be used to re-establish healthy vaginal flora and prevent bacterial vaginosis (BV). Probiotics can be used – along with other natural therapies – to treat urinary tract infection(UTI) and yeast infection.
 Finish researchers reported that large amounts of live Lactobacilli consumed daily may have positive effects on rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis. Benefits have also been shown in skin problems such as eczema and psoriasis. Probiotics may be considered a valid alternative to conventional therapy for alcoholic cirrhosis.  Consumption of Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Bifidobacterium lactis reduced the risk of colon cancer.
                                   Probiotics offer immunity and digestive health

Health benefits of food enzymes

Enzymes are natural catalytic proteins that speed up biochemical reactions by lowering the activation energy. All plants and animals produce enzymes. All vital processes in human body are dependent on enzymes. Enzymes aid in the digestion of food and are essential for all metabolic activity in the body. Each organ has its own set of enzymes. Enzymes vary in different individuals, depending on genetics and life style. More than 3000 different enzymes have been identified in the body.
Kinds of Human enzymes
In humans enzymes can be categorized into 3 classes: metabolic enzymes, digestive enzymes and food enzymes. Metabolic enzymes catalyse many different biochemical reactions that take place in the body’s cell and tissues. Metabolic enzymes are involved in the processes of energy production, synthesis and repair of cell structures and replication of genetic material. Digestive enzymes are secreted along the gastrointestinal tract, help break down macronutrients such as protein, fats and carbohydrates found in our diet and enable absorption of nutrients into the blood stream. Humans secrete about 24 different digestive enzymes depending on the type of foods eaten. Digestive enzymes fit into 3 primary categories: proteases digest proteins, amylases digest carbohydrates and lipases digest fats.
Food enzymes
Food enzymes are introduced to the body through the raw foods we eat and through consumption of supplemental enzyme products. Food enzymes are vital helpers to predigest food and aid greatly in the absorption of nutrients. Food enzymes include digestive enzymes but also enzymes unique to particular foods. Food enzymes of particular food cannot be stored in the body for later use. The three major food enzymes are: amylase, which breaks down starches into sugars; lipase, which breaks down fats into fatty acids and protease, which breaks down proteins into amino acids. Fresh raw foods are capable of self –digestion by its own self-contained enzymes. The cooking and processing of natural foods destroys all of its enzymes.

Definition of enzyme

Dixon and Webb (1979) defines an enzyme as a “protein with catalytic properties due to its power of specific activation.” Enzymes are protein catalysts that increase the velocity of a chemical reaction and are not consumed during the reaction they catalyse.

The food enzyme concept

When ingested, the enzymes in raw food or supplementary enzymes result in a significant degree of digestion, thus lowering the drain on the organism’s own enzyme potential.

The law of adaptive secretion of digestive enzymes

This law states that the organism values its enzymes highly and will make no more than are needed for the job. If enzymes in the food digest some of the food, the body will make less concentrated enzymes.

The concept of food enzyme stomach

The human stomach consists of two physiologically distinct parts: the upper cardiac region(the fore-enzyme stomach) and the lower pyloric region. The peptic digestion of protein takes place in the lower part of the stomach whereas the upper portion is where food enzymes in raw foods predigest food material. According to the food enzyme concept of Dr. Edward Howell, the duration of life varies inversely with the intensity of metabolism. In other words the length of life is inversely proportional to the rate of exhaustion of the enzyme potential.

Food enzyme hypotheses

1. Raw foods contain enough food enzymes for that particular food.
2. Enzymes in raw foods are destroyed with cooking, radiation and processing of food(critical temperature above, wet heat 47 degree Celsius / 118 degree Farenheit)
3. Food enzymes are reduced by long-term storage, shipping and treatment with organic chemicals and toxins.
4. Eating cooked foods deplete the body’s limited enzyme capacity.
5. Modern processes of pasteurization, canning, baking, drying, freezing and microwaving are particularly harmful to the enzymes in food.
6. The enzyme shortage in processed foods may be the direct cause of shortened lifespan, inferior health of the organs and chronic illnesses.

Enzyme-friendly foods

Enzyme research has revealed the importance of raw foods in the diet. The enzymes in raw foods help start the process of digestion and reduce the body’s need to produce digestive enzymes. Plant based enzymes are the most popular choice of enzymes. The plant based proteases are papain from the papaya, ficin from the fig tree and bromelain from the pineapple. Grains are naturally endowed with amylase, and some protease and lipase. Raw honey has considerable amounts of amylase.  Sprouted foods (seeds, grains and legumes) are one of the best sources of living enzymes. Bovine milk contains 35+ different known enzymes most of which are destroyed by pasteurization. Fermented foods (e.g., miso, kabitofu, Toyu, Natto, Tempeh, masato, malakachisu, tofu, certain soybean products such as soy sauce) are loaded with enzymes. Some fruits that contain lots of enzymes include avocados, papayas, pineapples, bananas, kiwi, figs, grapes and mangos. Grains, nuts, legumes and seeds are rich in enzymes as well as other nutrients, but also contain enzyme inhibitors. Unless deactivated, these enzyme inhibitors  can put an even greater strain on the digestive system than cooked foods.

Enzyme – specific foods

Papayas contain large amounts of proteolytic enzyme (protease) called papain. Papain is known to alleviate the inflammation and pain.When digestion is poor, many people use papaya, which is actually a digestant. Pineapples also contain proteolytic enzyme called bromelain, which helps to dissolve antigens that are responsible for allergies and inflammation. Protease enzymes help with food allergies or intolerances to animal protein. Apples contain a number of enzymes including ascorbates oxidase, beta galactosidase, catechol oxidase, pectase, pectin methyl esterase, peroxidase, polygalactouronase, polyphenol oxidase and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Apricots contain amylase, invertase, polyphenol oxidase, and other enzymes. Avocados contain amylase, cellulose, lipase and other enzymes. Green beans contain amylase, lipoxygenase, peroxidase and SOD. Broccoli contains amylase, casein, kinase and SOD. Cabbage contains allene oxidase, cyclise, amylase and other enzymes. Cherries contain beta glycosidase and polyphenol oxidase.

Advantages of food enzyme intake

1. Improves digestion, elimination and bowel disorders.
2. Reduces bloating, belching, gas, heartburn and food allergies.
3. Enhances physical stamina, energy and vitality.
4. Promotes balanced pH in the body.
5. Protects form degenerative diseases.
6. Strengthens the immune system.
7. Relieves muscle stiffness and inflammation.
8. Promotes the efficiency of cardiovascular system.
9. Slows down aging process and contributes to longevity.
10. Influences overall health and weight management.

Enzyme therapy

Presently enzymes are used in supplement form to improve health, in injectable form to treat heart attacks and in topical form to treat skin problems such as burns. The enzymes used most frequently to treat digestive problems include proteases, amylases and lipases. Enzymes are wonderous aids used to improve health, maintain wellness and fight disease and injuries. Enzyme therapy is a plan of dietary supplements of plant and animal enzymes used to facilitate the digestive process and improve the body’s ability to maintain balanced metabolism. Enzyme supplements are often prescribed for patients suffering from disorders that affect the digestive process such as cystic fibrosis, Gaucher’s disease and celiac disease. Supplementary enzymes have the ability to purify blood, strengthen the immune system, enhance mental capacity, cleanse the colon and maintain proper pH balance in urine. Enzyme supplements are extracted from plants like pineapple and papaya and from the organs of cows and pigs.

              Food enzymes lower the drain of organism’s own enzyme potential.

Nutritional value and handling of fruits and vegetables

 Fruit and vegetable consumption is one element of a healthy diet. Fruits and vegetables provide excellent sources of nutrients such as fibre, complex carbohydrates and numerous vitamins, minerals as well as non-nutritive phytochemicals. The nutrient content of fruits and vegetables also vary greatly in quality and quantity. The phytochemicals present in fruits and vegetables are diverse, such as ascorbic acid, carotenoids and phenolic compounds and they function as antioxidants, phytoestrogens and anti-inflammatory as well as chemoprotective agents. The World Health Organization (2003) estimated that a low vegetable and fruit intake accounts for 2.7 million deaths annually. Insufficient  intake of fruits and vegetables is estimated to cause around 14% gastrointestinal cancer deaths, about 11% of ischemic heart disease deaths  and about 9% of stroke deaths worldwide (WHO 2009). The World Health Organization acknowledges that the global intake of vegetables is less than 20-50% of the recommended amount.

Types of fruits and vegetables

Vegetables can be categorized into 3 general types such as green leafy and cruciferous, low-glycemic and starchy. On the other hand fruits are mainly divided into sweet, sub-acid and acid fruits. Vegetables are derived from various parts of plants that include leaves, stems, shoots, flowers, roots, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs, seeds, pods and even fruits. Vegetables are often used for dietary variety, colour and taste and can be obtained in a range of processed state including fresh, frozen, canned and dried. The quality factors of vegetables include colour, flavour, nutritional composition and health – functionality. The content of individual fruits and vegetables is affected by factors such as variety, soil, climatic conditions, agricultural methods, physiological stress and degree of ripeness, storage conditions and length of storage before consumption.

Most fresh fruits and vegetables are high in water, low in protein and low in fat. The water content ranges from 70-85%, commonly protein content is no greater than 3.5% and fat content no greater than 0.5%. Legumes such as peas and certain beans are higher in protein; a few vegetables such as sweet corn are slightly higher in fat; and avocados are substantially higher in fat. The majority of proteins occurring in fruits and vegetables play enzymatic roles. Proteins are found mainly in the cytoplasmic layers. The lipids of fruits and vegetables are largely confined to the cytoplasmic layers, in which they are especially associated with the surface membranes. The total amount of mineral components in fruits and vegetables is in the range of 0.1% (in sweet potatoes) up to about 4.4% (in Kohlrabi). The most abundant mineral constituent in fruits and vegetables is potassium.

Nutrient composition

The water content in various foods ranges from about 15% in grains, about 16 to 18% in butter, 20% in honey, 35% in bread, 75% in meat to about 90% in many fruits and vegetables. The amount of carbohydrates in foods ranges from about 1% in meats and fish, 4.5% in milk, 18% in potatoes, and 15 to 21% in sugar beets to about 70% in cereal grains. The proteins constitutes from about 1% of the weight of fruits, and 2% of potatoes, 12% of eggs, 12 to 22% of wheat grains, about 20% of meat to 25 to 40% of various beans. Lipids makes up from less than 1% of the weight of fruits, vegetables and lean fish muscle, 3.5% of milk, 6% of beef meat and 32% of egg yolk to 85% of butter.

Dietary recommendations

The World Cancer Society and the American Institute for Cancer Research suggest that mouth, stomach and colorectal cancers are less likely with high intakes of non-starchy foods like leafy green, broccoli and cabbage. The American Cancer Society advising at least five servings of fruits and vegetables per day for good health. The Harvard School of Public Health recommending nine servings of vegetables and fruits each day. The U.S. Department of Agriculture recommends filling half of one’s plate with fruits and vegetables at each meal. The USDA 2000 Dietary Guidelines (USDA, 2000) encourages people to: (1) enjoy five a day, i.e., eat at least 2 servings of fruits and at least 3 servings of vegetables each day.(2) choose fresh, frozen, dried or canned forms of a variety of colors and kinds, and (3) choose dark green leafy vegetables, orange fruits and vegetables  and cooked dry beans and peas often.The Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010 has  recommended  that  every individual  should  make one-half of his/her plate with fruits and vegetables. The Expert Committee of the Indian Council of Medical Research has recommended that every individual should consume at least 300g of vegetables and 100g of fruits per day.

5 A DAY message

The '5 A DAY' message highlights the health benefits of consuming five 80 grams portions of fruits and vegetables every day. ‘5 A DAY’ is based on advice from the World Health Organization which recommends eating a minimum of 400g (80 x 5g) of fruits and vegetables a day to lower the risk of serious health problems such heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes and obesity.

Health benefits of fruits and vegetables

Hydrating effects –Drinking fruit and vegetable juices can contribute to the hydration of body  fluids and supply sugars and minerals e.g., water melon, celery, cucumber and lettuce.

Diuretic effects – Diuretics improve the rate of urination. The presence of potassium and magnesium help to accelerate the frequency of urination e.g., lemon, lime, cucumber, rose apples, peach and water melon.

Alkaline forming effects – Potassium, magnesium, calcium, copper, zinc and iron are alkaline minerals that are found in most fruits and vegetables. Citrus fruits, soybeans, carrots, lettuce, water cress and spinach are some examples of fruits and vegetables with alkalizing properties.

Mineralizing effects – Fruits and vegetables are a good source of mineral nutrients such as potassium, magnesium and calcium. E.g., bok choy, amaranth leaves, French beans, Brussels sprouts, dates, avocado and passion fruit.

Laxative effects –The dietary fibres in fruits and vegetables maintain healthy bowel function. High fibre fruits and vegetables act as natural laxatives e.g., psyllium, wheat bran, bananas, berries, apples, prunes, raisins, pineapple, and cabbage.

Tonic effects – Fruits and vegetables have curative properties which are useful in the treatment of certain diseases. Vegetables rich in potassium may help to maintain blood pressure e.g., sweet potatoes, white potatoes, white beans, tomato, soybeans, spinach and lentils. Fruits like apple, date and mango have a direct effect on the central nervous system.

Precautions for storing and cooking vegetables

Fresh fruits and vegetables are contaminated by pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers. Wash and scrub all fruits and vegetables thoroughly under running tap water before using them. Rinsing and rubbing is quite effective at removing tiny pathogens and surface deposits of pesticides. Do not use any chemicals for washing because fruits and vegetables are porous and they absorb the chemicals. Peel fruits and vegetables if possible and wash them before peeling. Trim only the inedible parts of the vegetable and cut the vegetables just before cooking. Washing, peeling and cooking fruits and vegetables reduces pesticide levels and eliminates the waxes.  Drying fruits and vegetables with a paper towel provides another measure of safety.

Do not buy or use produce that is moldy, badly bruised, shriveled or slimy. Discord the outer leaves of leafy vegetables because pesticides residues tend to accumulate there. Store fruits and vegetables in a cool dark place and use them as soon as possible after purchasing. Refrigerated fruits and vegetables should be kept in bags or containers, to minimize the chance of cross contamination between other foods and surfaces. Do not store fruits and greens together because fruits give off ethylene gas, which causes greens to decay. Frozen vegetables are often as healthy as fresh vegetables. Keep your fruits and vegetables separate from raw meats, poultry and sea-food. Store newly bought ones separate from old ones.
Dry and shelf –stable foods include flours, rice, and sugars should be stored in jars or containers in a cool, dry and well ventilated area. The food storage area should be regularly swept out and cleaned and any spit food should be cleaned up immediately. Onions should be stored away from other food in a cool, dry and well-ventilated area.

Water soluble vitamins are destroyed by cooking and are lost over time. Minerals and vitamins leach out into cooking water. Use minimum amount of water for cooking and avoid overcooking. Cover the pot when cooking vegetables to keep in steam and reduce cooking time.  Use vegetable water in stocks or gravies. Avoid frying vegetables. This will lead to loss of all valuable vitamins. Dulling of the greens can be minimized by keeping cooking times short. Do not use sodium bicarbonate, when cooking vegetables. Cook frozen vegetables without prior thawing and for as little time as possible. Eat food as soon as possible after cooking and avoid reheating.

Try to vary the intake of your vegetables. Because different pesticides are used on different crops, eating a variety of fruits and vegetables help ensure too much of any one pesticide. The best way to eat fruits and vegetables is without additional fat or sugar. Storage and cooking can lead to overall losses of up to half of the original nutrient content prior to consumption.

Choose cooking methods that minimize losses of vitamins and minerals. Since vegetables are very fragile,cook them as lightly as possible. Vegetables taste, keep their color and retain their nutrients better, when not overcooked. The best method is to steam the vegetables lightly and eat them while they are still crunchy.Fruits and vegetables should be eaten as far as possible in their natural state.

Foods for better brain health

The brain is the most delicate and complex organ of the human body. Human brain is unique, electrochemical supercomputer which is far greater in complexity, speed and sophistication.   Isaac Asimov quoted, “The human brain then is the most complicated organization of matter that we know”. According to a saying, the brain is wider than the sky and deeper than the sea. The brain is the command and control centre of human body.  The brain is the seat of intelligence, emotion and memory.  The brain is the organ of one’s personality, character and intelligence. The brain receives, registers and processes information.   The brain initiates movements and behaviours. Neurons are the basic building blocks of the brain. The human brain contains more than one hundred billion neurons (nerve cells).  Each of the neuron has about 60,000 to 100,000 synaptic connections and has a total number of synaptic connections of about 10²⁷ . The human brain is connected to 30,000 miles (50,000 kms) of nerves.  The neurons are arranged end to end and the neurotransmitters transfer signals across the gaps (synapses) of 0.02 to 0.05 microns. The brain is a dense web of interconnecting synapses. Neurons communicate using electrical impulses. The neurons actually make up less than a tenth of the cells in the brain. The other 90-98% by number is glial cells, which are involved in development and maintenance. The human being has the highest ratio of weight of the brain to the total body weight.  The human brain weighs about 1.5 kgs, about 2 percent of body weight. The brain requires 15 percent of the blood, 40- 50 percent of the oxygen supply and 25 percent of the calories we consume. A 15 sec blockage of blood to the brain will result in unconsciousness. The brain cells are sensitive to oxygen availability. The brain needs a well-balanced, low-cholesterol and low- saturated (animal – fat) diet.

Brain chemicals

Neurotransmitters are the chemicals in our brains that regulate our feelings and emotions. Different neurotransmitters perform different functions in the body. There are 183 currently known transmitters.The neurotransmitters are primarily synthesized in nerve terminals. The master neurotransmitters are serotonin and the catecholamine group which consists of dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine. Neurotransmitters are made from amino acids. For example epinephrine and dopamine are made from phenyl alanine. Serotonin is made from tryptophan. Amino acids are generally abundant in high protein foods such as dairy products, eggs, legumes, fish, meats, nut, poultry and soybeans. Amino acid therapy is the use of supplemental amino acids to help balance body’s normal supply of amino acids and should be undertaken under the supervision of a doctor.
Acetyl choline is a neurotransmitter that is believed to play a crucial role in memory. Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) (natural tranquilizers) inhibits message transmission and helps to control brain overload. Serotonin is a neurohormone that acts on the overall operations of the brain. It is our natural anti-depressant and sleep promoter. It helps to control the general states of alertness. Catecholamines are our natural energisers and mental focusers.  Dopamine is a neurohormone that helps to control physical movement.  Endorphins are neurohormones (feel – good chemicals) that serve as a source of pleasure and reward as well as a means of reducing one’s awareness of pain and irritation.

Brain cell death

A process called oxidation destroys brain cells and creates free radicals as a by-product. Free radicals are killer molecules that kill cells including neurons and destroy neurotransmitters – which are the chemicals that transmit electrical messages from one brain cell to another.

Brain glucose

 The human brain is metabolically most active organ of the body.  It uses about 20-30% of a person’s energy intake at rest. Glucose is the brain’s sole source of energy.   The tight regulation of glucose metabolism is critical for brain physiology. The brain functions such as thinking, learning and memory are closely dependent on glucose levels and how effectively the brain utilizes glucose. If glucose becomes inadequate, neurotransmitters are not synthesized and communication between neurons breaks down.

Brain water

Human brain is very soft and composed of 80% water, which means that the most important requirement of good brain health is hydration. Dehydration causes shrinkage of brain tissue and expansion of fluid filled cavities in the middle brain. Dehydration can impair short term memory, visuomotor functioning and psychomotor functioning.  Extreme dehydration can results in delirium which causes confusion, inability to speak or think coherently, disorientation and hallucination. Dehydration is a major contributor to increased production of free radicals and premature aging.

Brain fats

The brain is composed of about 60% fat and brain cells is about 70% fat. The fats we eat directly affect the structure and substance of the brain cell membranes. About 20 % of the fat in our brain is made from essential fatty acids omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.  The balance between omega-3 and omega – 6 fatty acids seems to be critical for the brain’s structure and function. Human brain has special requirement for fatty acids. DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) accounts for up to 20% of total fatty acids in the grey matter and is the most abundant PUFA in the brain. DHA insufficiency affects membrane fluidity, serotonin transport, gene transcription, and inflammation and energy metabolism in the brain.  DHA exerts a neuroprotective action by preventing oxidative damage and inflammation.

Many nerve fibres are surrounded by myelin sheath, which speeds up the transmission of nerve impulses. Myelin is made up of various fats, fatty acids, phospholipids, cholesterol and protein. In fact 75% of myelin comes from fat. Choline enhances memory and promotes clear thinking.

Brain vitamins and minerals

The brain needs vitamins and minerals. B-vitamins help to maintain and build healthy brain cells. Vitamins B1, B6 and B12   play a valuable role for good brain health. Vitamin B1 (thiamine) helps in the conduction of electrical impulses within the brain.B6 (pyridoxine) is needed for the production of the neurotransmitter serotonin, which improves mood and B 12 (cobalamin) which is a constituent of the myelin sheath. Mineral ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium must maintain in critical balance.

Brain healthy foods

Physical exercise is most important food for the brain. Foods that have over 90% water content like grape fruit and water melon contain essential nutrients and electrolytes required to maintain proper hydration and optimal brain function.  Drinking beverages like coconut water and fruit juices effectively maintains optimal hydration and electrolyte balance.

Since glucose is the fuel for the brain, the blood glucose level has to be properly maintained. Complex carbohydrates are the best brain foods. Complex carbohydrates like whole grains, vegetables, beans or lentils – take longer to digest and slowly release potential energy.  Refined starch (white breads, white rice and pasta) impairs mental function.

Human brain needs oils and fats to function. Two essential fats especially critical to the brain are the omega – 3 and omega – 6 fatty acids. Foods high in omega- 3 fatty acids are important to maintaining brain health. Certain fish including salmon, mackerel, herring, sardines, tuna, anchovies, white fish and sable fish are good sources of omega – 3 fatty acids. Bad fats (saturated fats) inflame the brain. Trans fat is labelled as potentially the risk for Alzheimer’s disease by almost 50%.

Vitamins B 1 can be obtained from whole grains, nuts, meat and eggs. Vitamin B6 can be obtained from eating fish, poultry, eggs, whole grains and nuts. Vitamin B 12 can be obtained from meat, fish, dairy products, eggs and yeast extract.

Foods rich in vitamin C, Vitamin E and beta- carotene appear to reduce cell damage including brain cells. Vitamin C is found in citrus fruits, broccoli, Brussels sprouts and straw berries. Vitamin E is found in vegetable oils (corn, canola, sun flower, soybean and olive oils), nuts and leafy greens. Beta – carotene is found in sweet potatoes, carrots, kale and spinach. Folic acid is an essential ‘brain food’, which is critical for normal nerve function. Folate works with approximately 20 different enzymes to build DNA. Folic acid is found in leafy green vegetables, bananas, orange, and straw berries.

Iron – rich foods improve mental alertness and energy levels. Lean sources of red meat, poultry, spinach, beans, dried fruits and whole grains are excellent sources of iron. Selenium is linked to balance of moods, which is available in whole grains, rice, meat and sea weeds.

Essentials of brain health

1. Be physically active
2. Eat a healthy and balanced diet
3. Avoid saturated fats and caffeine
4. Listen to your body
5. Keep your mind active
6. Maintain good heart health and healthy body weight
7. Protect your head from injuries.
8. Calorie restriction can enhance learning and memory.

Nutritive value of vitamins

Vitamins are low molecular weight organic (carbon containing) compounds that are required in very small amounts for human growth, metabolism and health. Vitamins are essential nutrients. Vitamins cannot be bio-synthesized by the body but they must be ingested regularly through diet. The term “vitamine” was coined by Casimir Funk in 1912, meaning a basic essential for life. Generally vitamins and minerals are referred as vital body regulators because they are needed to make thousands of enzymes, hormones and other chemical messengers. Human beings need 13 vitamins and at least 10 minerals to stay healthy. Vitamins can be categorized into fat-soluble and water – soluble vitamins based on their solubility and polarity. Vitamins A, D, E and K (ADEK) are fat soluble and can be stored in fatty tissues and liver. The excess dietary intake could build up in the body and cause toxic effects. On the other hand vitamins B complex and C are soluble in water and harmless since there is little storage in the body.

Vital + Amines = Vitamin

Definition of vitamin

Vitamins are defined as “organic substances, needed in very small amounts that perform a specific metabolic function and must be provided in the diet of the animal.” They work as catalysts and substrates in metabolic reactions and some vitamins assist as co-factors for enzyme action.

Conditions of vitamin nutrition

Avitaminosis is a chronic or long-term vitamin deficiency e.g., night blindness(vitamin A),beri beri (vitamin B1), scurvy (vitamin C), rickets (vitamin D) and pellagra (vitamin B3).

Hypovitaminosis is caused by inadequate intake of one or more vitamins.

Hypervitaminosis results from excess intake of vitamins.

Antivitamins – a substance that destroys or inhibits the metabolic action of a vitamin e.g., avidin, sulphonamides.

Provitamins – a substance which the human body can convert into a vitamin e.g., beta carotene is a provitamin of vitamin A.  Dehydrocholesterol and ergosterol are provitamins of vitamin D.

Previtamins –a substance intermediate in the production of vitamins. A term synonym to provitamin.

Fat – soluble vitamins

Vitamin A

Vitamin A occurs in plants in the form of  provitamin carotene. The provitamin includes α -, β- and λ- carotenes and cryptoxanthin. The carotenes are the precursors of retinol. The modified forms of retinol are retinol (vitamin A aldehyde) and retinoic acid (vitamin A acid). Vitamin A is a 20-carbon compound with a β-ionone ring. The side chain is a highly unsaturated hydrocarbon unit. As many as 300 carotenoids have been identified in nature. The plant sources of β – carotenes include green leafy vegetables, carrot, red palm oil, and mango. The animal sources include fish liver oils (halibut, cod, and shark), milk, milk products and egg yolk. Avitaminosis results in the loss of night vision (nyctolopia). A failure of rod vision results in night blindness. The real sign of deficiency is xerophthalmia, dry keratinisation of cornea and conjunctiva. Vitamin A acts as an antioxidant (prevent cancer) as well as a hormone. It is essential for growth and differentiation of epithelial structure and bone. It promotes gluconeogenesis and synthesis of glycoproteins. The suggested daily dosage is about 700μg for adults and 300µg for children.

Vitamin D

Two forms of vitamin D are known. Cholecalciferol (D3) of animal origin is produced in the skin from a steroid previtamin7-dehydrocholesterol by sunlight (sunshine vitamin).  Calciferol (D2) is prepared synthetically by exposure of another provitamin ergosterol from yeast or plant sources. The two vitamins have the same activity in human beings. Ergosterol is obtained from plant sources like ergot and yeast. Dehydrocholesterol is obtained from animal sources like egg yolk, milk and fish liver oils. Vitamin D directly promotes the intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphorus. It facilitates calcification and development of bones. Vitamin D deficiency causes rickets in children and osteomalacia (a bone thinning disorder) and osteoporosis (reduced bone mineral density) in adults. The daily requirement of Vitamin D for children is estimated to be about 10μg (400 IU) and for adults is 5 µg (200 IU). The toxic symptoms of vitamin D Hypervitaminosis is loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting intense thirst and hypercalciuria (renal stone formation).

Vitamin E

Four forms of vitamin E are known such as α-, β-,λ- and ∆ - Tocopherol.  Chemically the compound is a 6- hydroxyl chroman with a phytyl side chain.  Vitamin E prevented sterility in human beings hence the name antisterility vitamin. The deficiency of vitamin E is shown to produce sterility, muscular dystrophy, haemolysis and megaloblastic anaemia. In infants vitamin E deficiency causes hemolytic anaemia.  Vitamin E is destroyed to great extent by cooking and food processing. The therapeutic daily dose is 500-1000 mg for the treatment of anaemia.  Dietary sources of vitamin E include leafy green and yellow vegetables, oils, grains, milk, meat and yeast. It plays an important role in maintaining stability and integrity of cell membranes. It has antioxidant properties and prevents free radical oxidation. It is relatively non-toxic.

Vitamin K

Vitamin E is a phytyl naphthoquinone occurring in the green leaves of most plants. There are two natural forms of this vitamin such as vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) and K2 (menaquinone). Vitamin K1 found in plants has a phytyl side chain and vitamin K2 produced by intestinal bacteria (microbial vitamin) has polyisoprenoid side chain. The dietary sources of vitamin K include green leafy vegetables, tomatoes, cauliflower, spinach, soybean oil, egg yolk and animal liver. Vitamin K is essential for normal blood clotting in wounds. Prothrombinogen and other blood clotting factors are formed in the liver with the help of vitamin K. The recommended daily allowance is 2 mg. The malabsorption of vitamin K results in the prolongation of clotting time and haemorrhages following an injury (hypoprothrombinemia).  Hypervitaminosis results in hyperbilirubinemia.

Water soluble vitamins

The B complex group of vitamins serve as coenzymes or coenzyme precursors. B vitamins are a group of eight water soluble vitamins. The B complex vitamins include thiamine (B1), riboflavin(B2), pantothenic acid(B3), niacin(B5), pyridoxine(B6), biotin (B7), folic acid(B9), cyanocobalamin(B12), inositol, choline, lipoic acid and para-aminobenzoic acid. B vitamins generally occur in protein –rich foods and dark green leafy vegetables. The B complex vitamins coexist in the same foods. The dietary requirement is between 10 – 400 mg of each daily. They help form red blood cells. Thiamine deficiency results in beriberi and riboflavin deficiency causes pellagra. The deficiency of pyridoxine causes anaemia and folic acid results in macrocytic anaemia. The B vitamins and vitamin C are often referred to as the “stress vitamins” because they are depleted by stress. B complex with Vitamin C plays a critical role in the body systems responsible for energy production, which helps to combat stress. The B vitamins are important for helping to reduce anxiety, depression, irritability, and nervousness. Most of the B vitamins, along with many other nutrients, are also removed when foods are highly refined or during the processing and cooking of foods.

Vitamin C

Vitamin C is also known as ascorbic acid or ascorbate and it exists in nature both as reduced or oxidised form called dehydroascorbic acid.  It can be destroyed by oxygen, alkalies and high temperature.  Recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for vitamin C is 90 mg/day for adult males and 75 mg/day for adult females. Vitamin C helps in the synthesis of collagen that holds muscles, bones, and other tissues together. Vitamin C also aids in wound healing, bone and tooth formation, strengthening blood vessel walls, improving immune system function, increasing absorption and utilization of iron, and acting as an antioxidant. It absorbs UV light and protects retina. The deficiency of vitamin C leads to scurvy, anemia, pains at the joints, hemorrhage from the mucous membranes of the mouth and GI tract.

Water-soluble vitamins are essential nutrients needed daily by the body in very small quantities. The B-complex vitamins can be found in a variety of foods like cereal grains and breads, as well as other foods such as meat, poultry, eggs, fish milk, legumes, and fresh vegetables. Vitamin C can be found in a many fruits and vegetables.

Vitamin therapy

Vitamins are essential organic substances usually supplied by foods. They are required by man in amounts ranging from micro-grams to milligrams per day. All the vitamins are essential for the normal growth, development and maintenance of the human body. They play an important role in the immune defense system. Vitamin therapy is a new and promising strategy for the treatment of certain chronic diseases. The therapeutically   new synthetic vitamin analogs with more potent, less toxic and long lasting effects are used in the treatment of cancers. However vitamins, vitamin analogs and vitamin mixture have been used and misused in the treatment of several diseases.