tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-58056253100021565502024-03-17T20:03:27.797-07:00bonvictor.blogspot.combonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.comBlogger135125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-82311708812291923052016-06-21T05:06:00.002-07:002016-07-22T21:12:25.645-07:00Thinking differently with divergent and convergent modes<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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The American psychologist<b> Joy Paul Guilford</b> (1897-1987) introduced
the terms divergent and convergent thinking in 1946. The divergent and convergent thinking are two natural
forms of thinking (two sides to the same coin) that produces solutions to problems
<b>(production type of thinking</b>). <b>“Convergence”</b>
refers to thinking that leads to a single correct solution. <b>“Divergence”</b> refers to thinking that
leads to number of correct solutions. Both divergent and convergent thinking
are necessary for problem solving, decision making, creativity and innovation. Divergent
thinking is used to create ideas and convergent thinking is used to judge
ideas. Convergent thinking is opposite of divergent thinking. In divergent
thinking, one thought stimulates many others and the thinking branches or
broaden out <b>(multi-directional thinking).</b>
In convergent thinking, many thoughts are reduced to a single one and the
thinking funnels in <b>(linear thinking)</b>.
In divergent thinking, a problem can be solved with different approaches
whereas in convergent thinking, there is one answer for any given problem. Divergent
thinking is generating options without judgement and convergent thinking is
judging the options. </div>
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<b><i>Creativity
= “diverge before you converge</i></b></div>
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<b><i>Creativity = Divergent thinking (“thinking up
ideas”) + convergent thinking (“assess the effectiveness of the ideas”) </i></b></div>
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<b><i>Creativity = </i></b><b><i>Generating many ideas +
converging on the best idea <o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Definitions and
explanations</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>Convergent thinking </b>is the ability to apply logic and
knowledge to narrow down the number of possible solutions to a problem.
Convergent thinking is more rigorous and analytical and is associated with
focused attention. Consideration,
improving and fine – tuning of ideas are part of convergent thinking. Convergent
thinking focuses on ‘screening, selecting and evaluating alternatives’ (Puccio
et al. 2006). The goal of convergent thinking is to find the one correct answer
or the best answer of the options available.</div>
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<b>Divergent thinking</b> is the ability to think along many paths
to generate many solutions to a problem. Brain storming is a typical example of
divergent thinking. Divergent thinking is essentially open-ended thinking
involving non-logical processes which allows using one’s imagination to explore
all sorts of new possibilities. The goal of divergent thinking is to come up
with many possible solutions, answers or options. Divergent thinking typically
occurs in a spontaneous, free-flowing manner and many ideas are generated in a
random, unorganized fashion. J.P. Guilford (1950, 1967) described divergent thinking
as a primary method of achieving creative ideas. </div>
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<b><i>Divergent thinking </i></b><b><i><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à </span>thinking
outwards—centrifugal movement-- broad focus of attention—less goal bound—gathering
diverse points of view—suspending judgement-- idea generation—creative process.<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
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<b><i><br /></i></b>
<b><i>Convergent thinking </i></b><b><i><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span>
thinking inwards –centripetal movement--narrow focus of attention –more goal
bound -- sorting ideas into categories—exercising judgement – idea
analysis—evaluative process.<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Convergence and
divergence</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Convergence means bringing together and moving toward one
point. Divergence means developing in different directions. Divergence is a
mode of thinking in which one uses the right brain to explore ideas or
solutions without judging them. In convergence thinking mode one uses the left
brain to analyse ideas and think them through logically. Convergence and divergence are two necessary
types of thinking for being creative. In any problem solving situation from the
beginning to the end, individuals are shifting their thinking modes between
divergence and convergence. The ability to switch from one type of thinking to
other is called <b>pivot thinking</b>. Pivot
thinking is a cognitive problem solving style that easily pivots or shifts between
divergent or convergent problem solution possibilities. One of the key
indicators of an innovative process is the alternation between divergent and
convergent thinking modes of thinking with frequent pivots between the two
modes. A <b>“converger”</b> would tend to
prefer convergent problem solving techniques while a “<b>diverger</b>” would tend to favour divergent problem solving
techniques. A <b>“pivot thinker”</b> would
display problem solving preferences that easily pivots or shifts between
divergent and convergent approaches. </div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Rules of divergent
thinking</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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A divergent thinking involves imaging, reframing and seeing
issues from different perspectives. Divergent thinking is complex, associative
process of bringing alternative, novel, and original ideas to emergence.
Divergent thinking allows one’s imagination to produce variability and
encourages the production of multiple answers. It involves thinking laterally,
not just in or convergent ways. Divergent thinking usually occurs in a
spontaneous, free-flowing and non-linear manner. Einstein was a strong
divergent thinker. The strategies for encouraging divergent thinking include
brainstorming, keeping a journal, free- writing and mind mapping. </div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>Expand ideas and defer judgement</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Create and accept plenty of ideas</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Combine ideas and consider novelty</div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Break paradigms and generate strange ideas.</div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Commandments of
divergent thinking</b> (M.D. Jones)</span></div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">The more the ideas, the better – “Quantity
breeds quality.”</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Build on other ideas –expand the range of
options, perspectives and elements.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Seek wild and unusual ideas –wacky ideas incite humour
and open up many paths.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Don’t evaluate ideas – suspend judgment. </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"> </span></li>
</ol>
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Forms of divergent production</b>
(Paul Torrance 1915-2003)</span><br />
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</div>
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<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Fluency –generating many ideas.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Flexibility – generating different types of
ideas.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Originality – generating novel ideas.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Elaboration – building on and developing ideas.</span></li>
</ol>
<b><span style="font-size: large;">Rules of convergent
thinking</span></b><br />
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Convergent thinking
processes move from data, clues or parts of a problem to a specific idea. Convergent
thinking involves analysis of ideas and synthesis in to concepts, evaluation
and prioritization of concepts. Convergent thinking narrows down a large number
of ideas through the process of analysing, sorting, judging, eliminating and
selecting (<b>directed thinking</b>). Convergent
thinking emphasizes accuracy, correctness and effectiveness. In convergent
thinking, there is usually one conclusion or answer that is regarded as unique
and thinking is channelled or controlled in the direction of that answer.
Convergent thinking allows us to use our knowledge to examine concepts.
Convergent thinking is particularly appropriate in science, maths and
technology. Convergent thinking is essentially about traditional problem
solving.</div>
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</div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Be systematic and analyse the objectives</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Evaluate the ideas using rules of logic</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Use intuition</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">No paradigm breaking and draw a best answer.</span></li>
</ol>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Advantages</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Convergent and divergent thinking
skills are both important to critical thinking. Convergent and divergent
thinking tools are extremely helpful when making decisions. Creative
achievement requires a complex combination of both divergent and convergent
thinking. In the generation stage, teams or individuals use divergent thinking
to develop novel ideas. In the application stage, they use convergent thinking
to make those ideas useful. Divergent thinking is the wellspring of invention.
In academic settings, when a student takes a multiple choice exam, he tries to
find out the right answer from a set of incorrect options. Most training in schools
encourages convergent thinking. </div>
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<b><i> "Diverge before you converge"</i></b><br />
<b><i> "Not all thinking is the same"</i></b></div>
</div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-81878269317332634742016-06-16T05:11:00.001-07:002016-07-22T21:10:00.442-07:00Worldviews: the best way to change your lens on the world<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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People have different mental concepts and different ways of
looking at the world. A worldview is a person’s mental concept on all of the world
and the whole of life or a system of philosophy relating to it. Worldview
literally means <b>“a general view of the
world”</b> or <b>“philosophy of life.”</b>
Every human being has a worldview. Most people do not even know they have one. A
worldview can be true about some things and not true about other things. Worldview
is the framework of beliefs, values and images within which a person makes
decisions and conducts the business of living. In other words our worldview not
only describes reality, but it also prescribes how we act and respond to every
aspect of life. The worldview is not only the content, but also the mode of
thinking about reality. Worldviews develop over the course of a lifetime and
are transmitted from generation to generation through such means as education,
family tradition, religious belief, political orientation and the mass media. Worldview
affects what one believe about God, marriage, politics, social structures,
environmental concern, educational requirements, economics, the raising of
children, food habits etc.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Scope of worldviews</span></b></div>
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Our worldviews help in determining our priorities in life.
Worldviews helps to explain our relationship to God, fellow human beings and
environment. Worldviews help oneself to assess the meaning of events. Worldviews
also helps to justify one’s actions.<br />
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<b><i>“The ideas and beliefs we use to guide our actions. We use them to
explain cause and effect as we see them, and to give meaning to our experience.” -O’Connor, 1997.<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Definition</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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The term ‘worldview’ is a mental framework through which
individuals and groups view the nature of reality, the nature and purpose of
human life, and the laws governing human relationships.</div>
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<b><i>“A worldview constitutes an overall perspective on life that
sums up what we know about the world, how we evaluate it emotionally, and how
we respond to it volitionally” (Rudolf A. Makkreel 1999).</i></b></div>
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<b><i>Phillips and Brown (1991) state that</i></b>, <b><i>“a worldview is, first
of all, an explanation and interpretation of the world”</i></b> and second,<b><i> “an
application of this view to life.”</i></b></div>
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The term ‘worldview’ or <b><i>weltanschauung</i></b> (German) was first used
by Immanuel Kant in his <b><i>Critique of judgement</i></b>, first
published in 1970. He combined two German words into one: <b><i>welt</i></b> which means “world”
and <b><i>Anschauung</i></b>,
which means, ‘conception’ ‘idea’, opinion’ or ‘view’.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Salient features of
worldview</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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The worldview is the overall perspective from which one sees
and interprets the world. Most worldviews are learned early in life and are not
easily changed. Worldview is intuitively developed and does not require
individuals to have higher or university education. Worldview is not one’s
point of view but it is much more than personal preference or opinion. Worldviews
evolve in response to critical examination and reflection. Every religion
reflects a worldview and every secular ideology reflects a worldview. Worldviews
are often varying among individuals as a result of cultural traditions and
experiences. Worldviews are ideal types. They are used for description rather
than prescription; for analysis rather than evaluation. The worldviews are shaped by our life
experiences which in turn reshape our approach to life. Religion, philosophy, ethics,
morality, science, politics and all other belief systems shape our worldview. Worldviews can be resources for understanding
and analysing conflicts when fundamental differences divide groups of people. Worldviews
are important determinants of risk perception. Worldviews shape all that we
think, do or consider to be normal or abnormal and acceptable or unacceptable and
trustworthy or unreliable. Worldviews can lead to beliefs, behaviour and
lifestyles that can work for or against environmental sustainability. The
analysis of one’s worldviews is a powerful starting point for examining belief
systems.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Characteristics of
worldviews</span></b></div>
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<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Worldview is the truth claims that explain the
world and reality. It is the sum total of what we believe about the world. It
helps people make sense of the world.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Worldview should be rational. It should not be
contradictory.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">It should be supported by evidence. It should be
consistent with what we observe.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">It should give a satisfying comprehensive
explanation of reality.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">It should provide a satisfying basis for living.</span></li>
</ol>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Types of worldviews</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>Formal worldview</b>
–is a major system of ideas that orders human hearts and mind.</div>
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<b>Personal worldview</b>
– is one-to-one relationship with the established formal worldviews.</div>
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<b>Environmental
worldview</b> – is collective beliefs and values that give people a sense of
how the world works, their role in the environment and right or wrong behavior
toward the environment.</div>
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<b>Western worldview</b>
–sees human as dominant over nature and feels natural resources should be used
for the benefit of humanity.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Key elements of
worldviews</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>Views of human
nature- </b>basic beliefs about nature of people<b>-</b>e.g. people are naturally good or evil.</div>
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<b>View of the good life</b>
– the goals to strive for living one’s life – e.g. personal accomplishment,
peace of mind, love, adventure.</div>
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<b>Equality with others</b>
– belief about the status of some individuals or groups in relation to others –
e.g. social status and hierarchy.</div>
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<b>Responsibilities to
others</b> – beliefs about the extent of obligations to others – e.g.
self-centered or other- centered.</div>
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<b>Relationship between
individual and the state (govt)</b> – beliefs about the balance between
individual and collective rights – e.g. individual rights are more important
than the rights of the society.</div>
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<b>Relationship of
humans with nature</b> – beliefs about the way human beings should look on and
act toward the environment – e.g. preserving nature is more important than
using natural resources to support human activity.</div>
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<b>Sources of ethical
wisdom</b> – beliefs about the ultimate authority for ethical principles – e.g.
religion, God, science, natural rights.</div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Core areas of
worldviews</b><span style="font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span></span></div>
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</div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">God and the immaterial</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">The meaning and purpose of life</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Human nature</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">What we trust in the primary source of spiritual
truth.</span></li>
</ol>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Factors affecting
worldviews</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>Ideas and knowledge</b>
– what a group knows e.g. scientific, intellectual, technological, artistic and
spiritual knowledge.</div>
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<b>Contact with other
groups</b> – interactions between societies and between different groups in a
society.</div>
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<b>Geography </b>– where
a group lives: the climate, plants and animals, bodies of water and natural
resources.<br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Importance of
worldviews</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Worldviews serve as the necessary foundation and framework
of our thoughts and actions. It is our belief about what is real and important
–belief about the unseen –the spiritual, the philosophical and valuable. Our
worldview will determine how we interpret our lives and the world around us. It
shapes how we think about everything. Everyone constructs ‘a worldview story’
to make sense of our lives. Different cultural contexts lead to the formation
of unique worldviews, beliefs, values, and assumptions, modes of social
conduct, behavior and expectations among individuals. Worldviews keep our lives coherent, giving
oneself a sense of meaning, purpose and connection. Worldviews create a context
for everything we do. Worldviews provide some purpose to a given cultural
system. It gives a paradigm of reality for a particular society. Worldviews
stimulate people’s imagination. Worldviews
have formative influence on the lives of individuals, communities, groups and
especially those in positions of leadership. Worldviews have a significant
influence on the overall health of an individual. Worldviews can influence
student learning and development in academic settings. Worldviews contain
something more than scientific information. Region is the cornerstone of
worldviews. </div>
<b><i>“Our worldview changes as our beliefs change. If you change your core
beliefs in your worldviews,then your
life will change drastically.”</i></b><br />
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bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-59080211571417947082016-06-13T23:47:00.001-07:002016-07-22T21:07:48.886-07:00Personal creativity- the unique human resource<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">What is creativity?</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Creativity is defined as a combination of abilities, skills,
motivations and attitudes (Honig 2006). In other words, creativity is the
capacity or ability of an individual to create, discover or produce a product,
thought, art, process etc. Creative
thinking is thinking ‘out of the box’ to produce new, novel or original unique ideas
or solutions. The creative process uses divergent and convergent thinking. Facione (1998) describes creative or innovative thinking as
the kind of thinking that leads to new insights, novel approaches, fresh
perspectives, and whole new ways of understanding and conceiving things.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Creativity is complex</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Creativity is a highly complex phenomenon. The creative process refers to the sequence
of thoughts and actions that leads to a creative idea or a product. <span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Creativity
involves ideas, purposefulness, playfulness, exploration, problem solving, and
artistic and imaginative invention. </span></span>Creativity requires the interaction of four themes –
people, context, method and outcome. In short, creativity is not a simple thing- it is multidimensional.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Every human is a
creator</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Every person is inherently creative. Expression of creativity in each person is
only a matter of degree and frequency. Creativity is possible in all areas of
human activity like arts, sciences, business, technology and daily life.
Creativity has transformed our cultures, economies and life styles. Creativity
is valued by human society. Creativity
is a major driver of human evolution.<br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Creativity is a habit
(Sternberg 2006)</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">An
eminent American psychologist <b>Robert J. Sternberg </b>conceived of Creativity as a habit</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span> – a routine response. Creative people
habitually respond to problems in fresh and novel ways (Albert and Runco 1999).
Creativity can be made into a habit. There are three basic factors that help
turn creative thinking into a habit: <b>opportunities</b> (to engage in it),
<b>encouragement</b> (to go after such opportunities) and<b> rewards</b> (for the demonstration of creative
outcomes).</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Creativity exists at
all ages</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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The potential for creativity exists in all people and at all
ages. In general creativity develops with age and experience. Creativity may
changes in quality across the life span. Creativity is a function of knowledge,
curiosity, imagination and evaluation. Creativity is bound to situations and
contexts. Creativity is a state of mind that is fresh, alert and sensitive.Creative mind explores new possibilities, patterns and
options. Creative individuals are typically “<b>buy low and sell high”</b> in the world of ideas (Sternberg and Lubart
1995).</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Creativity exists in
all domains</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Creativity is found in many domains such as the arts,
literature, sciences and everyday life. Creativity is often enhanced when one
crosses domains. Creative people often transfer their knowledge and skills from
one field and apply them to another. They have the advantage of seeing the new
domain from different perspectives and of making significant changes. Creative
people are really good at mixing and matching all sorts of seemingly contradictory
emotions, ideas and personality traits to produce something truly original and
valuable.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Creativity is making
and breaking connections</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Making is connecting –making connections is an important
aspect of creativity (Duffy 1998). The acts of creativity usually involve
connecting things together (materials, ideas or both) to make something new and
novel. Creativity arises from the
conceptual integration of other’s ideas. Conceptual blending is a creative
thinking process that involves blending two or more concepts in the same mental
space to form new ideas. Creativity is
the ability to make connections between things that do not seem related. Sometimes
creative ideas may come from new combinations of old ideas. </div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Creativity keys</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b><i>The first key to creative thinking is clarity</i></b>. Creativity needs
critical thinking in evaluating and improving ideas. Critical thinker thinks
clearly, precisely and rationally. <b><i>The second key is concentration.</i></b> The creative thinker has to put aside and
concentrate single-mindedly on focusing one’s mental powers on solving one
single problem. <b><i>The third key is open mind.</i></b> The creative thinker tends to
remain very flexible and open to a variety of ways of approaching the problem. <b><i>The
fourth key is inspiration. </i></b>It means being inspired by oneself or by
others. Creativity thrives on curiosity, fresh input and rich domains of
knowledge. <b><i>Another key to creativity is motivation</i></b> i.e., having a purpose
to do so. Motivation is what we need to add value to creative effort. Creativity
needs encouragement of others. <b><i>The sixth key to creativity is gestation</i></b>
i.e. allowing time for creative ideas to emerge. Insight and intuition are
often associated with creativity. <b><i>The seventh key to creativity is
collaboration </i></b>through the support of others or a community.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Creativity is the
main driver of innovation</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Creativity is about imagination and ideas whereas innovation
is about actions and process. Creativity is largely cognitive and innovation is
largely behavioural. <b>Creativity involves only ‘thinking up new things’ and
innovation is only ‘doing new things’ </b>(Peters and Waterman 1982). Innovation is
the end result of creative process. The ideas (creativity) can be capable of
being transformed into successful action (innovation). Innovation requires creativity, but creativity
does not always lead to innovation.<br />
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<b><i> Creative power = Imagination+ Determination+ desire to launch<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Creativity is a synergy of many personality
traits</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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There are six personal traits essential for creativity:
intelligence, knowledge, thinking styles, personality attributes, motivation
and environment. Creative people possess a cluster of traits such as curiosity,
originality, ingenuity and a willingness to challenge convention and tradition.
Creative people are purposeful dreamers. Day dreaming is a healthful, problem solving
brain practice. Dreamers always dream of change. They dream of better world, a
better reality and a better future.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">A creative person is
a divergent thinker</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Divergent thinking is a prerequisite for creative
performance. Divergent thinking is one aspect of lateral thinking. Fluency,
flexibility and originality are considered the primary components of divergent
thinking. Divergent thinking involves processes like shifting perspectives,
transforming or producing multiple answers from the available information and
thus favours the production of novel and unconventional ideas. </div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Creativity is a process</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Creativity unfolds as a process. In 1926, Graham Wallas
described stages of creativity in which a creative idea is first prepared, then
internalized through incubation, after which the creative individual uses the
illumination or insight to finally go through the verification process of
applying the idea. <br />
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<b><i> Preparation </i></b><b><i><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span>
Incubation</i></b><b><i><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span>
Illumination </i></b><b><i><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span>
Verification (Wallas, 1926).<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<b><i> Clarification</i></b><b><i><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> Transformation </i></b><b><i><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span>Implementation</i></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Diversity is the
mother of creativity</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cultural diversity breeds creativity. Culturally different
people have different interpretations of the world. People have different ways
of generating solutions to problems. Diversity in thinking looks for solutions
from diverse perspectives of a problem. Teams can use diversity of techniques
in order to generate more creative ideas. For example teams with racial
diversity significantly outperform the groups with no racial diversity.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Creativity is tied to
culture</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Culture is what makes us who we are. It gives us strength;
it is a wellspring of creativity and innovation. There are many different ways by which
societies shape all aspects of creative expression ranging from the
availability of resources to the provision of rewards.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Creativity is
enjoyable</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Creativity brings about a sense of satisfaction,
accomplishment and reward. It can also provide a sense of peacefulness and joy.
There is a direct connection between fun and laughter and creativity. Freedom,
democracy and tolerance encourage greater creativity. </div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Creativity shapes
academic success</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Educational achievement is closely associated with
creativity and intelligence to a certain level. Creativity is more important
than intellectual capacity- helping one to learn more effectively, efficiently
and flexibly. In general creative individuals are achievement – oriented.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Creativity is
valuable</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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The outcomes of creativity bring about benefits for
individuals, groups and organizations. A nation needs creative scientists,
engineers, technocrats economists, poets, painters, musicians etc. . Great
inventions, scientific discoveries, all forms of artistic expressions
–painting, literature, music, drama – have depended on creative thinking. Creativity
is the central ingredient in human development. The function of creativity is
to improve society, products and services become more convenient, cheaper,
faster and better. Creativity transformed our cultures, our lifestyles and our
daily life. Creativity is an essential skill for effective leadership and
entrepreneurship. Creativity is critical to the performance and survival of any
organization. Creativity is an ultimate economic resource. Historians of
sciences have used “discoveries” as the bench marks of economic progress.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Creativity is a tool
for survival</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Creativity is one of the primary instincts and motivating
forces of life. Everyone is born creative. Creativity is a natural part of
being human. Creativity provides anyone with an intrinsic ability to face and
respond to the uncertainty and mysteries of our existence. Creativity supports
one’s drive to be more competitive, productive and effective. Creativity is a
vital source for meeting the challenges and dangers as well as opportunities.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Creativity is 85% a
leaned skill (Harvard study) </span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Creativity is potentially achievable by anyone, anywhere.
Everyone can strengthen their creative powers with practice, persistence and
patience. In order to develop creativity, one has to focus on creativity every
day. He has to try something new every day. Creativity is more like a muscle
that needs to be exercised in order to consistently give out best results.</div>
<b><i>“Creativity stands out as an activity to be studied, cherished and
cultivated.” -Silvano Arieti.</i></b><br />
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bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-13802695652217108852016-04-27T05:57:00.000-07:002016-07-22T21:04:26.925-07:00Lifelong self-directed learning<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Self-directed learning (SDL) is listed as a key component of
the 21<sup>st</sup> century skill for adult learners. Self-directed learning is
viewed as a process “in which a learner assumes primary responsibility for
planning, implementing and evaluating the learning process” (Brockett and
Hiemstra 1991). Self –directed learners learn more things and learn better than
teacher –directed learners (TDL). The goal of lifelong learning is to equip
people with skills and competencies to continue their own “self-education”
beyond the borders of formal education. Online learning is also closely
associated with self-directed learning from both the process and the personal
attribute perspective. American Association of Colleges and Universities (2002,
2007) suggests that a major goal of higher education is to create lifelong
learners – intentional, independent, self-directed learners, who can acquire,
retain and retrieve new knowledge on their own. Now a days there is increasing
recognition of the importance self-directed learning within higher education. Knowles
(1975) views self-directed learning as an inherent characteristic of adults,
closely related to a natural process of professional and psychological
development.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Basic ideas of
self-directed learning</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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The concept of SDL consists of three distinctive ideas: (1)
A self-initiated process of learning that stresses individual’s ability to plan
and manage his/her own learning. (2) An attribute or characteristic of learners
with personal autonomy as its hallmark. (3) A way of organizing instruction in
formal settings that allows for greater learner control (Cafferella 1993). Self-directed
learning is also named, “self-teaching, independent learning, autonomous
learning, individual learning, self-initiated learning, self-instruction,
self-study and self-education.”</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Goals of
self-directed learning</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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The goals of SDL can be grouped as follows: (1) to enhance
the ability of adult learners to be self directed in their learning ; (2) to
foster transformational learning as central to SDL; (3) to promote
emancipatory learning and social action
as an integral part of SDL.<br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Characteristics of
self-directed learners</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;">
</div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Independent in learning;</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Effective in learning;</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Accepting of responsibility for learning, and</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Able to use problem solving skills.</span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: large;">Competencies for
being a self directed learner (Knowles 1995)</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
</div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Understanding the differences between teacher-
directed and self-directed learning;</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Determining one’s concept as a self-directed
being;</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Relating to peers collaboratively and as resources for learning;</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Diagnosing learning needs and formulating
objectives;</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Viewing teachers as facilitators;</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Identifying other resources;</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Collecting and validating evidence of
accomplishments.</span></li>
</ol>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Definitions</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Knowles (1995) defined SDL as a process in which individuals
take the initiative’ without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning
needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for
learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies and
evaluating those learning outcomes. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Self- directed learning is any knowledge, skill,
accomplishment or personal development that an individual selects and brings
about by his or her own efforts using any method in any circumstances at any
time (Gibbons 2002). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: large;">Steps in SDL (Knowles
1975)</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The learners undergo following steps: (1) climate setting;
(2) diagnosing learning needs; (3) formulating learning goals; (4) identifying
human and material resources for learning; (5) choosing and implementing
appropriate learning strategies; and (6) evaluating learning outcomes.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: large;">Advantages of SDL </span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
</div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Self-directed learning promotes self-confidence,
initiative, perseverance and life satisfaction.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Self-directed learning helps learners to be
motivated, independent, self-reflective, self-disciplined and goal oriented.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Self-directed learning provides opportunities to
pursue wider range of interests other than the usual school curriculum.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Self-directed learners can gain new skills,
knowledge and attitudes to improve their work performances.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Self-directed learning in higher education
provides opportunities for adult learners to learn how to learn as well as
lifelong learning.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Self-directed learning can not only leads to be
more effective learning, but can also result in immediate professional successes.</span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: large;">Disadvantages of SDL</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
</div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Self-directed learning is prone to frequent
errors.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Self-directed learning is quite time consuming.</span></li>
</ol>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Summary</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
SDL refers to an instructional method. SDL is compatible
with any and all learning styles and strategies. SDL is a process of learning
appropriate for adults, who weaned away from traditional educational
consumption. Self-directed learning is fully an autonomous learning. Personal
autonomy is the hallmark of SDL. Self-directed learners take full
responsibility for their education. SDL is a process that centres on the
activities of planning, implementing and evaluating learning. Self – direction does
not mean the learner learns alone or in isolation. SDL occurs outside of formal
institutions. SDL is NOT time –dependent. SDL is a tool for lifelong learning. SDL
provides a foundation for transformative learning. Educators can facilitate
learners become increasingly able to assume personal responsibility for their
own learning (Brockett and Hiemstra1991). Educational institutions at all levels can prepare learners for a life
of self-direction. <br />
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<br /></div>
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<br />
<i style="font-weight: bold;">Self-direction in learning is a way of life</i> <i>(Brockett and Hiemstra 1991).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<br />
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</div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-20532679565103702452015-02-26T22:39:00.003-08:002015-03-03T20:26:15.259-08:00Metacognition: thinking about one's thinking<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Metacognition refers to critical analysis of thought or
purposeful thoughtfulness. Metacognition refers to the knowledge, awareness and
control of one’s own thinking and learning. During Metacognition, one can
examine one’s own brain’s processing. Metacognition
is a form of cognition, a higher order thinking process or <b>a supervisory or metalevel system</b> which involves active control
over cognitive processes. It can be simply described as thinking about thinking
or knowing about knowing or cognition about cognition. <b>Metacognition serves many diverse functions</b>. Metacognition plays an
important role in communication, reading comprehension, language acquisition,
social cognition, attention, self-control, memory, self-instruction, writing,
problem solving and personality development (Cooper 1999). Learning is
facilitated through the use of metacognitive strategies that identify, monitor
and regulate cognitive processes. </div>
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<br /></div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Metacognition-meaning
and definition</b></h3>
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John Flavell, a psychologist of Stanford University is
regarded as a foundation researcher in metacognition. Metacognition was first coined by Flavell In
the mid 1970s. The term Metacognition as used by Flavell (1979) refers to an
individual’s awareness of his/her cognitive processes and strategies. The word
“Metacognition” combines the prefix “meta” (derived from Greek meaning after,
behind, or beyond) with cognition which refers to the process of knowing
(derived from a Latin verb meaning “to learn or to know). Metacognition is
described as the ability to monitor, regulate and select strategies in doing a
task. The strategies can include any methods, thoughts, beliefs, practices,
tricks, behaviours or moods that are specifically cultivated to improve one’s
ability to learn.<br />
<br />
Metacognition is important because it affects acquisition,
comprehension, retention and application of what is learned. In addition it may
affect critical thinking, problem –solving and decision making. Metacognition include both knowledge and
strategy components. Cognitive and metacognitive strategies are closely
intertwined and dependent upon each other. Metacognition involves information
processing activities. Metacognition refers to thinking that enables the
understanding, analysis and regulation of thought processes. Metacognition is
defined as thinking about one’s thoughts (Harris and Hodges 1995). The National Research Council (2001) defines Metacognition as
“the process of reflecting on and directing one’s own thinking.”</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Metacognitive components</b></h3>
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Metacognition consists of two complementary elements such as
metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation (Flavell 1979). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Metacognitive
knowledge</b> – awareness of one’s thinking – refers to what the learner knows
and understands about the task in hand.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Metacognitive
regulation</b> – the ability to manage one’s own thinking processes –refers to
the strategies the learner uses to complete the task. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><b>Flavell (1979) describes three kinds of metacognitive
knowledge.</b></i></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b>1.Awareness of knowledge </b>–understanding what one knows, what one does not know and what one wants to know. <br />
<b>2. Awareness of thinking</b> – understanding cognitive tasks and the nature of what is required to complete them.<br />
<b>3. Awareness of thinking strategies </b>– understanding approaches to directing learning.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><b>There are three kinds of content knowledge.</b></i> Researches
support the claim that skilled learners possess declarative, procedural and
conditional knowledge about cognition. This knowledge usually improves
learner’s performance.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b>1.Declarative knowledge </b>– knowing ‘about’ things – knowledge of one’s own learning processes and about strategies. <br />
<b>2. Procedural knowledge</b> – knowing ‘how’ to do things – knowing what skills and strategies to use and how to apply them.<br />
<b>3. Conditional knowledge </b>– knowing ‘when’ and ‘why’ to apply different cognitive actions- knowledge about why and when various learning strategies should be used.</div>
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<b>Metacognitive
regulation</b> refers to a set of activities help learners to control their
learning.<b><i> It includes three essential skills: </i></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b>1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>Planning </b>– involves working out how a task might be approached before you do it. <br />
<b>2. Monitoring –</b> refers to the learners on –task awareness of progress, comprehension and overall performance.<br />
<b>3. Evaluation </b>– requires the learner to review the outcomes and efficiency of the learning experience e.g. revisiting goals and conclusions.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Metacognitive levels of thought</h3>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b>1.Tacit </b>–thinking without thinking about it;<br />
<b>2. Aware</b> –thinking and being aware that you are thinking;<br />
<b>3. Strategic </b>– organizing our thinking by using strategies that enhance its efficacy; and<br />
<b>4. Reflective </b>– reflecting on our thinking (pondering how to proceed and how to improve; Swartz and Perkins 1990).</div>
</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Metacognition and learning</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Metacognition allows learners to take charge of their own
learning. It involves awareness of how they learn, an evaluation of their
learning needs, generating strategies to meet these needs and then implementing
the strategies (Hacker 2009). Metacognitive strategies in learning include
planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it taking place,
monitoring of one’s comprehension and evaluating the learning outcomes. <b>Monitoring and reflecting</b> on the
process and products of one’s own learning is crucial to successful learning as
well as to learning how to learn. Metacognitive knowledge is crucial for
efficient <b>independent learning </b>because
it fosters forethought and self- reflection. John Dewey often considered the
father of progressive education, viewed reflection as a central part of <b>active learning</b>. Metacognitive skills
are essential for <b>lifelong learning. </b>Metacognition
helps the learners to understand how they learn, their strengths and their
needs and better understand the learning process. Palinscar and Brown suggested
four concrete teachable metacognitive learning activities: <b>summarizing, questioning, clarifying and predicting</b>. Ann Brown and her colleagues (1983) describe
three ways we direct our own learning:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Planning approaches to tasks –identifying the problem,
choosing strategies, organizing our thoughts and predicting outcomes.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Monitoring activities during learning – testing, revising
and evaluating the effectiveness of our strategies and </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Checking outcomes – evaluating the outcomes against specific
criteria of efficiency and effectiveness.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Metacognition and
reading</b></h3>
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Metacognition plays an important role in reading
comprehension. Metacognitively skilled readers are readers who are aware of
knowledge, procedures and controls of the reading process. They use this
knowledge during the reading process to improve reading and comprehension ability.
Reading comprehension refers to the ability of readers to understand the
surface and the hidden meanings of the text using metacognitive strategies. The reading strategies include metacognitive
components such as inferring, self-questioning, monitoring, ‘fixing’ and
summarizing. Reading for meaning involves the metacognitive activity of
comprehension monitoring and reading for remembering includes identifying
important ideas, testing one’s mastery of material, developing effective study
strategies and allocating study time appropriately. </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Metacognition and listening
</b></h3>
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Metacognition has a lot to offer to listening comprehension.
Metacognitive strategies for listening
include analysing requirements of a listening task, activating appropriate
listening process required, making appropriate predictions, monitoring their
comprehension and evaluating the success of their listening approach (Vandergrift
1997).</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Metacognition and problem
–solving</b></h3>
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Research has shown
that one of the key traits good problem solvers possess is highly developed
metacognitive skills and are generally self-aware thinkers. Davidson, Deuser
and Sternberg (1994) identified four metacognitive processes that may be
applicable in solving problems: identifying and defining a problem, mentally
representing the problem, planning how to proceed and evaluating what you know
about your performance. Some of the
metacognitive processes involved in problem solving situations include self-planning,
self-monitoring, self-regulating, self-reflecting and/or self-reviewing. Learners with superior metacognitive
abilities are better problem – solvers.<br />
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</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Benefits of metacognition</b></h3>
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Metacognition is important for the development of critical
thinking and effective learning (Larkin2000). Metacognition once learned,
supports reflective thinking, helps problem solving, gives responsibility and
improves self-confidence for quicker decisions for the rest of one’s life
(Kuiper 2002). Metacognition plays a pivotal role in oral comprehension,
reading comprehension, problem solving, attention, memory, social cognition,
certain types of self-control and self – instruction (Gama2000). Metacognition
is closely intertwined with learning to learn, life-long learning, flexible
learning, independent learning, and gaining responsibility for learning
(Yurdakul 2004). Metacognition is important in project work because learners
must make decisions about what strategies to use and how to use them. Metacognitive
skills have a positive influence on both problem solving (Schoenfeld 1987) and
mathematical problem solving (Hacker 1998). Metacognition enable educators to
teach students how to learn as well as what to learn. Metacognitive knowledge
is critical in guiding the writing process. As noted by Strickland (1972) “The
quality of what is expressed in writing depends upon the quality of thinking
that undergirds it.”<br />
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</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Concluding thoughts</b></h3>
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Metacognition enables a critical awareness of one’s thinking
and learning and oneself as a thinker and learner. Metacognition is crucial to
effective thinking and competent performance. Good metacognitive thinkers are
also good intentional learners. The function of cognition is to solve problems.
The function of Metacognition is to regulate a person’s cognitive operation in
solving a problem or executing a task (Vos 2001). “To make an individual metacognitively
aware is to ensure that the individual has learned how to learn” (Garner 1988).</div>
</div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-83003349825915363222015-02-19T03:32:00.000-08:002015-04-08T20:44:04.529-07:00Principles of effective leadership<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Leadership is one of the most complex human behaviours. Leadership
is a multidimensional process that is conceptualized as a trait, as an ability,
as a skill, as behaviour, as a relationship and as a process (Northouse 2015,
author: Introduction to Leadership). Effective leadership is a key factor in
the survival and success of an organization. Leaders can make the difference between
success and failure. A leader is a person who directs, organizes, administers,
makes decisions, delegates possibilities and plans for future. Effective
leadership needs skills, styles, character and the spirit of serving to be
effective, efficient and productive. Leaders need to have a vision, communicate
that vision with passion so followers are inspired. Successful leaders have a
strong desire to lead and exercise power, exhibit honesty and integrity and are
highly self-confident. The world’s most effective leaders –<b>Gandhi, Mandela,
Churchill, Lincoln, Thatcher, Mother Teresa etc</b>. – display widely different
personal qualities.<br />
<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Leadership concept</b></h3>
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Leadership can occur between the leader and another
individual; between the leader and a group, or an organization or a community
or a society. Leaders need followers in order to lead. Followers need leaders
in order to follow. <b>Leadership is a
relational concept</b>. Leadership exists in relation to others (followers). Leadership
deals with people in relationships. Jim Kouzes and Barry Posner said,
‘Leadership is a relationship between those who aspire to lead and those who
choose to follow.’ So leadership is composed of leaders, followers as well as
situations. Leadership is a process of social influence (not power), which
maximizes the efforts of others, towards the achievement of a goal (Kruse
2013). Psychologist Bernard Bass (1990) reviewed 28 studies and found evidence
that the <b>desire for achievement</b> is an important motivating factor among effective
leaders. Successful leaders are
characterized as “electric, vigorous, active and full of life.” (Kouzes and
Posner 1987). They are ‘tirelessly persistent’ in their activities – especially
in communicating their vision to followers (Bass 1990).</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Leadership definition</b></h3>
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Leadership is commonly defined as a process of interaction
in which the leader influences others toward goal achievement (Yukl 1998).
Leadership occurs among people, involves the use of influence and is used to
attain goals. So leadership can also be
defined as the ability to influence people towards the attainment of goals.
Leadership is a <b>‘people activity.’</b> In order to lead, the leader must do
something benefiting followers and the followers allow the leader to lead.
Leadership is a transaction between leaders and followers. Leadership is a process whereby an individual
(a leader) influences a group of people to achieve a common goal.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Leadership factors</b></h3>
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Leadership is composed of four primary factors such as
leaders, followers, communication and situation. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Leader </b>–leaders
require traits, skills and knowledge. The leadership traits include
intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity and sociability
(Stodgill 1974).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Follower </b>– The
process of leadership involves the leader and the followers in interaction. Peter
Drucker said, “The only definition of a leader is someone who has followers.”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Communication-</b>
Communication skills are the foundation for effective leadership. Communication includes how the leader speaks,
listens and learns. Many American presidents like John F Kennedy, Franklin D
Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln have made impact as great communicators.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Situation </b>– the
situation normally has a greater effect on a leader’s action than his/her
traits. What a leader do in one situation will not always work in another.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Leadership theories</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Trait theory</b> –
assumes that a leader is born with specific traits that made him/her a good
leader. This theory assumes that the leader is different from the average
person in terms of capacities, talents and personality.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Behavioural theory</b>
- assumes that anyone can learn to become a good leader because he is not
drawing on personality traits.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Transformational
theory</b> – assumes that people will follow a leader who inspires and
motivates them.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Transactional theory</b>
– assumes that people are motivated strictly by reward and punishment.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Leadership function</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Leadership have <b>three</b>
essential roles: they have to define the task, achieve the task and maintain
effective relationships.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Planning </b>–
seeking all available information and defining the task; developing a workable
plan.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Initiating</b> –
explaining people the aims and the plan;</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Informing</b> –
clarifying the task and the plan; summarizing suggestions and ideas coherently;</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Controlling</b> –
making sure that all resources and energies are properly harnessed;</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Supporting</b>
–setting and maintaining organizational and team values and standards;</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Motivating</b> –
gaining the goodwill and genuine commitment of the team and each member;</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Evaluating</b>
–establishing and applying the success criteria appropriate to the field;</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Setting an example</b>
– leading from the front while exemplifying the qualities and behaviours
expected in the team.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b> Leadership components </b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Character </b>– the
leader’s behaviour and personality;</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Style –</b>the way
leader relates and does the job daily;</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Skills</b> –
performance, which could be developed on the job;</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Service </b>– a
leader is a servant first and then a boss. Leadership is relationship of
service to people and purpose (Kouzes and Posner)</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Leadership
characteristics</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The purpose of leadership is to change lives. The leader
bears an almost sacred duty to create conditions that enable people to grow and
have happy and productive lives (Senge 1990). Leadership is often thought of as
more inspirational or guidance –oriented as well as informal. Leadership relies
more on <b>personality traits and people skills</b>. Leadership is thinking creatively
and innovatively; empowering others through focus on execution. A leader who is
innovative and produces better results is respected and looked upon. In a
research conducted in 2008 (McKinsey research), it was found that more than 70%
of the senior executives believed that <b>innovation</b> was one of the drivers for
organizational growth. </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Leadership styles </b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Four distinct leadership styles are identified based on the
relative presence (high-low) of task and relationship behaviour:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Telling </b>– (high
task-low relationship) –The leader makes the decision. The leader defines roles
and tells followers what, how, when and where to do various tasks, emphasizing
directive behaviour.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Selling </b>– (high
task – high relationship)- the leader makes the decision and then explains it
to the followers. The leader provides both directive and supportive behaviours.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Participating </b>– (low
task-high relationship) – The leader and followers share decision making. The
main role of the leader is to encourage and assist followers in contributing to
sound decisions.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Delegating </b>– (low
task – low relationship) – The followers make the decision. The leader provides
little direction or support.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Leadership qualities </b></h3>
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Leadership behaviours are a function of intelligence,
personality traits, emotional competence, values, attitudes, interests,
knowledge and experience. Leadership qualities can be divided into two
categories: traits and core values. Leadership traits represent WHO you are.
They develop over time. Leadership core values represent HOW you are – the
guiding principles for how everyone in an organization thinks and acts.</div>
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<b>Vision</b> – the
sense of vision causes the leader to accept the duties of leadership and
inspires others. Leadership is a strong sense of purpose. Warren Bennis said, “leadership
is the capacity to translate vision into reality.”</div>
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<b>Character </b>– is a
significant source of personal power. Character in leadership is pursuing noble
ends with noble means with knowledge, skill and talent. The leader must have
drive and determination to stick with difficult tasks until they are completed.
Successful leaders remain calm and confident even during tense situations.</div>
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<b>Personal integrity</b>
– It is the quality of honesty, strength of character and courage of leader.
Integrity leads to trust and trust leads to respect, loyalty and ultimately action.
Fuchan Yuan said, “There are three essentials to leadership: humility, clarity
and courage.” Dwight Eisenhower also said,
“The supreme quality of leadership is integrity.”</div>
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<b>Charisma </b>–
Charisma is a Greek word that means ‘divinely inspired gift.’ Charisma means
attractive or possessing a certain quality that raises enthusiasm or interest. Leaders are talkative, good looking
authoritative or energetic. The result is admiration, enthusiasm and the
loyalty of followers.</div>
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<b>Energy</b> – To have
energy is to have the physical and psychological ability to perform. Ralph
Waldo Emerson said, “The world belongs to the energetic.”It is a better
indicator of long-term leadership success than many traits.</div>
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<b>Competence</b> –
competence in leadership is seen as a matter of task accomplishment and
interpersonal relations. Task accomplishment involved traits like intelligence
and knowledge. A leader must have a keen mind to understand information, formulate
strategies and make correct decisions. Interpersonal competence involved the
ability to communicate and to demonstrate caring, insight and empathy. A
leader’s interpersonal skills are vitally important in the process of inspiring
others toward implementing the vision. By counting attributes per category,
leaders must have a ratio of about <b>60% interpersonal and 40% personality
attributes.</b></div>
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<b>Flexibility</b> – those who are adaptable are willing to use
alternatives, substitutes and surrogates. Adaptability is a key component of
flexibility as a positive leadership.
Adaptability allows the leader to adjust multiple demands, shifting
priorities and rapid change. Adaptability helps the leader to be resilient in
the face of constraints, frustrations and adversity. </div>
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<b>Sociability</b> – is
ready and willing to engage others without anxiety or fear. The leader must be
sincerely and deeply concerned about the welfare of people. <br />
<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Leadership
effectiveness</b></h3>
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Leading groups effectively is a tremendous challenge, a
great opportunity and serious responsibility. Leadership is mobilizing the
interest, energy and commitment of all people at all levels. Bardwick (1996)
clearly states that leadership is not intellectual or cognitive but<b> emotional.</b>
Noted author Warren Bennis, who has spent over three decades studying leaders
described leader as “one who manifests direction, integrity, hardiness and
courage in a consistent manner that inspires trust, motivation and
responsibility on the part of followers, who in turn become leaders themselves" (Johnson 1998). Effective leaders have more drive, honesty, leadership
motivation, self-confidence, intelligence, knowledge, creativity and
flexibility. Successful leaders accept responsibility and accountability for
their actions and decisions. They have clear goals and communicate them to
their followers. Great leaders are and
always have been of service to their followers first and then leaders into a new,
better, more productive life. Effective leaders are both <b>task-centred and
people – centred. </b>Current research indicates that emotional intelligence is
crucial factor in leadership effectiveness. <b>Emotionally intelligent leaders</b> are
equipped with the insight to see people’s pattern of emotions, the relationship
between emotions and how emotional states change from one to another. Raymond
Perras, the author of AiM for Life Mastery said, “If choose peak performance,
you will learn to apply the right stuff, in the right amount, at the right
time.”<br />
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<b><i> “Great leaders inspire greatness in others”</i></b> – Anon. </div>
</div>
</div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-72165029133371390902015-02-08T06:40:00.002-08:002016-06-25T06:12:05.600-07:00Skilled interpersonal communication<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Interpersonal communication (IPC) is central to our daily
routines. It is essential to our survival and happiness. Communication is the
exchange of thoughts, opinions or information using speech, signals or writing.
<b>Communication may serve a variety of purposes</b> – for example to learn, to
relate, to help, to influence or to play. We communicate to develop identities,
establish and build relationships, coordinate efforts with others, have impact
on issues that matter to us and work out problems and possibilities. Studies
have shown that most people spend between 80 and 90 percent of their waking
hours communicating with others. Experts tell us that 70-80 percent of our
working time is spent in some kind of communication. Communicating
inter-personally is a <b>‘way of life’</b> in organizations. Effective communication is
an important element of success for every organization, leader, manager,
supervisor and employee.John Powell said, <b>“Communication works for those who work at
it</b>.”</div>
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<b>Meaning of
communication</b></h3>
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The word communication comes from the Latin <b><i>communicare,
</i></b>which means ‘to make common’ (Weekley 1967) or ‘to share’. The word
interpersonal is derived from the prefix <i>inter</i>,
meaning ‘between’ and the word <i>person</i>;
Interpersonal communication (IPC) literally occurs between people.
Interpersonal communication is an exchange of information between two or more
people. Information is conveyed as words, tone of voice and body language.
Studies have shown that words account for 7 percent of the information
communicated. Vocal tone represents 55 percent and body language 38 percent. </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Defining interpersonal communication</b></h3>
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Interpersonal communication (IPC) is defined as the process
that we use to communicate our ideas, thoughts and feelings to another person (Wikipedia).</div>
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Interpersonal communication is the process by which people
exchange information through verbal and non-verbal messages.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Elements of
communication</b></h3>
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The elements of communication include <b>purpose</b> (why a message is
communicated),<b> audience</b> (who is listening to the message), <b>vehicles</b> (the means
used to deliver the message), and<b> barriers </b>(outside forces that keep an
audience from listening). </div>
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<b>Purpose </b>– know what the real purpose of the message (e.g. to
persuade or inform);</div>
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<b>Audience </b>–know your audience and adapt your message to their
particular needs;</div>
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<b>Vehicle</b> – choose the best medium (e.g. a report, personal
conversation or presentation) for conveying your message;</div>
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<b>Barriers</b> –troubleshoot or present possible communication
barriers.</div>
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All communication has both a purpose and audience. The
purpose may be to describe a situation, explain a procedure or persuade
someone. An audience is one or more readers or listeners. A communication
vehicle is the medium through which something is transmitted, expressed or
accomplished. There are many of them e.g. verbal, written and visual. There may
be distractions and interruptions. </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Communication model</b></h3>
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Effective communication begins with first understanding how
the communication process works. The sender-message-channel-receiver model
describes the communication process. In
1949, Claude E. Shannon and Warren Weaver published the transmission model of
communication. This model had five components:</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
</div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><span style="font-family: "symbol";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span>An<b> information source</b>, which produces a message;</li>
<li>A <b>transmitter,</b> which encodes the message into signals;</li>
<li>A <b>channel</b> to which signals are adapted for transmission;</li>
<li>A<b> receiver,</b> which decodes the message from the signal and</li>
<li>A <b>destination</b>, where the message arrives.</li>
</ul>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Characteristics of
interpersonal communication</b> (Hartley 1999)</h3>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Communication is from one person to another.</li>
<li>Communication is face-to-face. </li>
<li>Both the form and the content of the communication reflect the personal characteristics of the individuals as well as their social roles and relationships.</li>
</ul>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Forms of
interpersonal communication</b></h3>
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Communication is more than just verbal. <b>Verbal communication</b>
involves all aspects of language: words, style, grammar, content, pitch,
volume, tone, pronunciation, pace, timing and the clarity and the use of voice.
Non-verbal cues are very important in communication.<b> Non – verbal communication
</b>is what we say with our body. It includes physical-facial expressions, eye
contact, tone of voice, body posture and motions and positioning within groups.
It may also include the way we dress, our silence and other mannerisms.
Researchers have estimated that approximately 7 percent meaning is transmitted
by words, 38 percent is transmitted by vocal cues and 55 percent is transmitted
by body cues.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Principles of
interpersonal communication</b></h3>
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There are ten principles of interpersonal communication:</div>
<b>1. Interpersonal communication is inescapable</b>-we cannot keep ourselves away from communication.<br />
<b>2. Interpersonal communication is irreversible </b>– it is rightly said that a word uttered once cannot be taken back.<br />
<b>3. Interpersonal communication is contextual </b>– communication does not take place in isolation. They are context specific.<br />
<b>4. Interpersonal communication involves ethical choices </b>– ethics refers to a set of principles or rules for correct conduct. As you respect yourself and your ideas and feelings in ethical communication, you must honour those of others.<br />
<b>5. People construct meanings in interpersonal communication</b> – meanings reside not in words alone, but rather in how we interpret them.<br />
<b>6. Meta-communication affects meanings</b> –meta-communication is communication about communication. Metacommunication may be verbal or nonverbal. It can increase understanding.<br />
<b>7. Interpersonal communication develops and sustains relationships</b>- IPC is the primary way we use communication to develop and sustain relationships.<br />
<b>8. Interpersonal communication is not a panacea </b>– although communication is powerful and important, it is not a cure-all.<br />
<b>9. Interpersonal communication effectiveness can be learned</b> – effectiveness in IPC can be learned through committed study and practice of principles and skills.<br />
<b>10. Interpersonal communication is complicated</b> – no form of communication is simple due to the number of variables involved.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Importance of interpersonal
communication</b></h3>
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On a fundamental level, interpersonal communication plays an
important role in fulfilling several basic human needs like the need to belong,
the need for competence and the need for autonomy (Baumeister and Leary 1995).
Communication can move communities, influence cultures and change history. It
can motivate people to take stand, consider an argument or purchase a product.
Competence in oral communication is a prerequisite to student’s academic,
personal and professional success in life. Good communication is important in
maintaining relationship in family and with friends. Strong communication
skills are vital to effective management. Effective communication is very
helpful in workplace where we need to interact with different types of people.
In general most communication in the workplace is to either convey information
or persuade co-workers (or supervisors) about a course of action. </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Skilled interpersonal
communication</b></h3>
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According to Hargie (2011)<b> communication is a form of
skilled performance</b>. Skilled interpersonal communication improves individual
and group outcomes in life and work. Skills needed for interpersonal
communication are self awareness, control over oneself, speaking clearly and
pleasantly, good manners and etiquettes, active listening, understanding of
non-verbal behaviour and feedback.</div>
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<u><b>GUIDELINES</b> :</u><br />
<b>Active listening </b>– Listening is the cornerstone
for good communication and is often the least developed skill. To listen
demands an active effort to search and understand the meaning of what is said.
The active listener listens intently with the aim of empathizing with the
speaker.</div>
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<b>Focus attention</b> – the first requirement for good listening
is to pay attention to be completely focused on the speaker. Listen intently
and avoid any distractions. Show your are paying attention with eye contact and
non-verbal indicators. </div>
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<b>Reflect content and feelings</b> – Use your own words to
paraphrase the message to check your understanding of what the speaker is
saying. Acknowledge the feelings you hear behind the speaker’s message.</div>
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<b>Effective questioning </b>– Ask permission to ask questions. It
is a good step toward building trust and will allow a more honest, straight
forward, free flowing exchange of information. Questioning the speaker helps to
obtain more information and to clarify an earlier point.</div>
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<b>Assertion</b> – assertiveness is the ability to confront someone
in a non-aggressive and non –manipulative manner. </div>
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<b>Giving feedback </b>– Feedback is returning output of
information based upon input received by another. When communicating, you must
learn to be effective both in the way you receive feedback from others and the
way you tell others what you think of their ideas.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Uses of interpersonal
communication</b></h3>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Furnish, gather and understand information.</li>
<li>Develop acquaintances and preserve personal relationships.</li>
<li>Influence the stances and conduct of others.</li>
<li>Make decisions and solve problems.</li>
<li>Establish an identity with others.</li>
<li>Satisfies your four needs: physical, practical, social and ego.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<i><b> All communication has both a purpose and an audience,</b></i></div>
</div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-45320141298889111632015-02-05T06:05:00.003-08:002015-02-14T03:14:13.916-08:00Professional competencies for superior performance<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Competencies are specific personal qualities or behaviours that individuals must have or must acquire to perform effectively at work. Competency
consists of knowledge, skills and personal attributes that affect an
individual’s ability to perform. Competencies are internal capabilities that
people bring to their jobs. A competency is the capability to apply or use a
set of related knowledge, skills and abilities required to successfully perform
(applied knowledge or the behavioural application of knowledge). According to
the Oxford American Dictionary, a person is competent when he or she is
properly qualified or skilled. Competence is the quality or state of being
functionally adequate or having sufficient knowledge, strength and skill. Every
job requires different competencies. Competencies within different contexts may
require different bundles of skills, knowledge and attitudes. Competencies are
the gauges for job success. Competencies are the behavioural differences
between outstanding performers and average performers and thus are the building
blocks to the organizational success. Toyota’s <b>organizational core competencies</b> lie in achieving excellence
through <b>‘continuous improvement and
waste reduction’</b>. Google has determined that <b>innovation </b>is a critical competency for their success. Pixar, a
digital animation movie production studio has created <b>‘culture of creativity’</b> is their core competency.<br />
<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Concept of competency</b></h3>
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The word competency is derived from Latin word <b><i>‘competere’</i></b>
which means ‘to be suitable.’ The concept of performance competencies was
pioneered by psychologists Robert white and David McClelland. White (1959)
identified a human trait that he labelled ‘competence’ which described those
personality characteristics associated with superior performance and high
motivation. It was McClelland (1973), a professor of psychology at Harvard
University who introduced and popularized the term ‘competency.’ Competencies
can be grouped as knowledge, skills, self-concepts, motives and traits (Tucker
and Cofsky 1994). A competency is more than just knowledge and skills. It
involves the ability to meet complex demands by drawing on and mobilizing
psychosocial sources (including skills and attitudes) in a particular context.
Acquiring a competency is not a one-time event, but rather an ongoing process.
Competencies are built over a period of time and are not inborn. It typically
takes experiences on the job to build competencies. </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Defining competency</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1. A competency can be defined as the entirety of knowledge,
abilities, skills and attitudes, which are necessary for an individual to work
effectively in particular working environment.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2. A person’s ability or capacity to undertake a particular
task or job (Sapre 2002).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3. The knowledge, skills and ability required to be successful
in the job (Simpson, HRSG).</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Competency versus
competence</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Competency is a person – related concept</b> that refers to the
dimensions of behavior lying behind competent performer. Competency is the
ability to apply knowledge and skills to produce a required outcome. It is the
ability to perform activities within an occupation; to function as expected for
employment and the ability to do a job under variety of conditions. <b>Competence is a work related concept</b> that
refers to areas of work at which the person is competent. Competence is the
quality or state of being functionally adequate or having sufficient knowledge,
strength and skills.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Competencies= competency + competence</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Components of
competency</b></h3>
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<b>Skills:</b> capabilities acquired through practice.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Knowledge: </b>understanding acquired through learning.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Personal attributes</b>: inherent characteristics which brought
to the job.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Behavior:</b> the observable demonstration of some competency.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
Competence in most professions involves the effective
implementation of three main sets of skills:</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b>1.Cognitive skills</b> – refers to the knowledge base of the profession which sets the individual apart from others.<br />
<b>2. Technical skills</b> –refers to the specialized and manipulative techniques essential to the profession.<br />
<b>3. Communication skills</b> –refers to the ability to interact effectively with clients and other professionals.</div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
General competencies will enable individuals, firms and
nations to compete successfully in the global economy of the 21<sup>st</sup>
century. The <b>workplace competencies </b>include the abilities to manage resources, use information, work with others, understand systems and use technology. Five competencies most
commonly found in international assessments are critical thinking, problem
solving, communication, collaboration and flexibility and adaptability.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Value of competencies</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Competencies are essential for preparation and success in employment.
Competencies may generic to emerging patterns of work and work organizations.
Competencies equip individuals to participate effectively in a wide variety of
social settings and adult life.
Competencies involve the integration and application of knowledge and
skills. Goldsmith and Walt (1999) emphasize the following six <b>leadership competencies</b> as ‘the
desired characteristics of the leader of the future’: thinking globally, appreciating
cultural diversity, demonstrating technological savvy, building partnerships
and sharing leadership.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Competency categories</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Core competencies</b>
are those characteristics that apply to every member of the organization
regardless of position, function or level of responsibility within the
organization The core competency is
based on the value systems, vision and mission of the organization e.g.,
motivation, trust, problem solving, interpersonal skills and communication.
Core competencies need to be identified, acquired and cultivated to form the
strategic architecture of a firm. The organization has been compared to a tree
with branches and roots. Then core competencies have been compared to roots
that provide nourishment. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Functional
competencies</b> are characteristics shared by different positions within an
organization that belong to a common job group or occupational family or
employees performing a common function. The functional competency is built
around key business functions like finance, production and marketing.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Job-specific
competencies</b> are characteristics that apply only to specific positions
within the organization. They built upon the foundation of the organization’s
core competencies. For example a pilot
needs a wide range of skills to fly a plane. Job-specific competencies include
functional and technical competencies. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Core, functional and job –specific competencies comprise the
architecture of a company’s competency model. Organizations may use competency
models as a springboard for organizational change. Competency models have also
been uses as a guide for employee development.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Dimensions of competency
framework</b></h3>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: xx-small;"> </span>Cognitive competence – knowledge (know-that) and understanding (know-why);<br />
2. Functional competences –skills or know-how;<br />
3. Personal competency – behavioural competencies or ‘know how to behave’;<br />
4. Ethical competency – personal and professional values; moral maturity;<br />
5. Meta-competencies – ability to cope with uncertainty; learning and reflection.</div>
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<b><i>Three –dimensional competency framework (KSA=knowledge, skills
and abilities)</i></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>Cognitive competence –knowledge and understanding<br />
2. Functional competence – skills<br />
3. Social competence – behavioural and attitudinal</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Mapping competencies </b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Competency mapping</b>
is the process of identifying key competencies (technical, managerial,
conceptual knowledge and attitudes and skills etc.) for an organization and the
jobs and functions within it. Competency
mapping involves the process by which we determine: the nature and scope of a specific job role, the skills
required, the level of knowledge required and the behavioural capacities
required to apply those skills and knowledge in that role. Competency mapping
plays a vital role in selecting, recruiting and retaining the right
people. Individual’s level of competency
in each skill is measured against a performance standard. When the competency
required for a particular position is mapped, an accurate job profile is
created. </div>
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<b>Competency profiling</b>
is a technique used to determine the unique set of competencies associated with
effective job performance in a particular organization. Competency profiles
summarize the knowledge, skills and abilities required for an open position.
The choice of the best candidate is made easier by detailed matching of
educational background, experience and training to the requirements of the
position.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A <b>competency
dictionary</b> lists all of the competencies that are required by an
organization to its mandate. It includes the core and all functional and job-
specific competencies identified throughout the organization. A competency
dictionary also includes information on the proficiency level needed to
successfully perform each competency for each position in the
organization. Identifying job-specific
competencies prior to recruitment enables one to determine gauges for success.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Competency modeling </b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Competency modeling is a job analysis method that identifies
the worker competencies characteristic of high performance. There are three
fundamental components to identifying competencies (Weiss and Kolberg 2003).</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>Select some of the job’s most effective performers.<br />
2. Study what these people do that distinguishes them from their less-effective counterparts.<br />
3. Identify the competencies that account for this difference.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Benefits of competencies</h3>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Competencies contribute to valued outcomes for societies and individuals;</li>
<li>Help individuals meet important demands in a wide variety of contexts;</li>
<li>Be important not just for specialists but for all individuals;</li>
<li>Identify selection criteria for interviewing potential job candidates;</li>
<li>Structure meaningful performance evaluation.</li>
</ul>
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<br /></div>
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In<b> summary,</b> competencies are specific personal qualities
that are casually related to effective and/or superior performance (Boyatzis
1982). Rothwell (2002) explains that core competencies that are required of all
workers. This would include knowledge, skills and abilities (commonly referred
to as KSAs) as well as soft skills or behaviours (Lucia and Lepsinger 1999). A
competency model is a descriptive tool that identifies the competencies needed
to operate in a specific role within a(n) job, occupation, organization or
industry. Depending on the work and organizational environment, a group of 7 to
9 total competencies are usually required of a particular job (Shippman et al
2000). Competencies are context – specific (Boyatzis 1982). Some competencies
are more important or essential than others for a position. Competence bridges
the gap between education and job requirements. High performance is often the result of right people, right place and right time.<br />
<b><i> Competence is an individual's know how or skill. </i></b></div>
</div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-827817387469023112015-01-31T00:32:00.000-08:002015-03-11T22:40:18.534-07:00Secrets of strategic thinking<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
A strategy is an individual’s comprehensive approach to a task.In other words strategy is a course of action for achieving an organization’s purpose.To think strategically means to take the long-term view and
see the big picture of desired end states and set goals. It is like ‘seeing the forest, not just the trees’ or
taking a helicopter ride to a sufficient height to see a big picture <b>(‘helicopter view’ of the firm</b>). Strategic
thinking requires the consideration of the past, the present and the future of
the firm. Strategic thinking plays a meaningful role in <b>‘thinking in time.’</b> Strategic thinking is an ability constantly to view
an organization’s operations, issues, and problems in a broad situational and
environmental context and with a long time perspective. Thinking strategically
requires research, analysis and forethought in order to create a plan for how
you will proceed as an organization in the future. Strategic thinking is a very creative,
dynamic and powerful skill that will energize you and your interactions with
others. Strategic thinking is a key competency that leaders, managers,
supervisors and front-line employees need to develop to enable the organization
to identify and take advantage of emerging issues.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><u>Concept of strategy</u></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Strategy is a concept with military roots. Strategy is a
term comes from the Greek <b><i>strategia</i> </b>meaning ‘generalship.’
Strategy is the art of planning and directing overall military operations and
movements in a war or battle. Henry Mintzberg in his book, ‘The rise and fall
of strategic planning’ points out that people use ‘strategy’ in four different
ways:</div>
1.<b> Strategy as plan </b>– strategy is a plan. Strategy is some sort of consciously intended course of action into the future (‘purposeful action’) or a guideline to deal with a situation. It can be general or specific.<br />
2. <b>Strategy as pattern</b> –strategy is a pattern. Strategy is consistency in behaviour over time.<br />
3.<b> Strategy as position</b> – strategy is a position. Strategy becomes a ‘niche’ in economic terms or product-market domain.<br />
4.<b> Strategy as perspective –</b> strategy is a perspective- character of an organization.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
Strategy is all of these- it is a plan, position,
perspective and pattern (<b>four Ps for
strategy</b>). Strategy is a means of establishing the organizational purpose,
in terms of its long-term objectives, action programs and resource allocation
priorities. A strategy aims to steer the direction of the overall organization.
It affects the long-term well-being of the organization. A strategy is future
–oriented and marked by uncertainty and risk.<br />
<br />
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</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><u>Strategy versus
tactics</u></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A strategy is the approach you take to achieve a goal. Strategy is being clear about where you want to go. Strategy has been characterized as “...the pattern of decisions in a company
that determines and reveals it objectives, purposes or goals...” Strategy is
undertaken before the battle. Tactics are implemented during the battle. A
strategy is a larger plan that can comprise several tactics, which are smaller,
focused, less impactful plans that are part of the overall plan. Strategy is a
thinking process required to plan a change, course of action or organization. A
tactic is a tool used in pursuing an objective associated with a strategy. Tactics
are the specific actions that are undertaken in implementing the strategy.
These actions comprise what is to be done, in what order, using which tools and
personnel. Every tactic must suit the strategy. Tactics are the actions that
lead to execution of the strategy. Tactics are made up of a few elements: an
action, a purpose, a schedule and a measurable result.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><u>Definition and
explanation</u></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Strategic thinking is defined as the individual’s capacity
for thinking conceptually, imaginatively, systematically and opportunistically
with regard to the attainment of success in the future.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Strategic thinking is not similar to critical thinking.
Critical thinking can be useful part of strategic thinking but critical
thinkers are less likely to be imaginative and opportunistic. Strategic thinking
is also not similar to creative thinking. Creative thinking is imaginative and
playful. Moreover creative thinking attends to a lesser degree to concepts,
systems and opportunities. Strategic
thinking is identifying, imagining and understanding possible and plausible
future operating environments for your organization. Strategic thinking is goal – directed,
structured and focused on the future in a precise way. It is analytical and
ambitious. It concerns power and trends as well as uncertainty.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><u>Strategic planning</u></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Strategic planning is the channelling of business insights
into an action plan to achieve goals and objectives. A strategic plan is a top-level overview of an
organization, its performance, its mission and its goals. A strategic plan is
like a game plan for the team to follow. It is a step-by-step operating
instruction of an organization. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><i>Create vision </i></b><b><i><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span>define
objectives</i></b><b><i><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span>define
strategies</i></b><b><i><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span>
implement</i></b><b><i><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span>control.<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><u>Strategic management </u></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Strategic management is the continuous process of creating,
implementing and evaluating decisions that enable an organization to achieve
its objectives.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><i>Strategic management </i></b><b><i><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span>
strategic planning +implementation+control.<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><u>Elements of strategic
thinking </u></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Conceive an ideal
future</b> –strategic thinking begins with a clear image of the desired
long-range future for the organization. Based on the vision, decisions and actions
are formulated.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Focus on core values</b>
–based on the core values of the organization – strategic decisions and actions
are clearly defined and accepted by the people at all levels of the
organization.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Always look for
opportunities and threats</b> – strategic thinking mind set depends on a keen
awareness of the environment. Strategic thinkers always discover opportunities
and detect potential threats in advance.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Search for patterns
and relationships</b> –strategic thinkers recognize the patterns between events
and circumstances.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Recognize connections</b>
- strategic thinkers are deeply aware of interrelationships between actions and
events within a system. </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><u>Value of strategic
thinking</u></b></h3>
1. Strategic thinking keeps the organization at the leading edge of change.<br />
2. Strategic thinking optimizes the ability to shape and leverage change to organization’s advantage.<br />
3. Strategic thinking eliminates complacency.<br />
4. Strategic thinking creates a sense of unity.<br />
5. Strategic thinking provides proactive leadership and the leaders think systematically with a system’s approach.<br />
6. Strategic thinking creates a life-long learning atmosphere.<br />
7. Strategic thinking provides an effective system to solve major problems.<br />
8. Strategic thinking improves the understanding of the business environment.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><u>Strategic thinking framework</u>
(ref: net source)</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Strategic thinking can occur in two phases each of which
consists of specific steps.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Phase I –setting the stage –consists of two stages</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>Seeing the big picture – understanding the broader business environment in which you operate.<br />
2. Articulating strategic objectives –determining what you hope to achieve by thinking strategically.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Phase II –applying your skills – consists of 5 additional
steps.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>Identifying relationships, patterns and trends- detecting patterns across seemingly unrelated events and categorizing related information.<br />
2. Getting creative – generating alternatives, visualizing new possibilities, challenging your assumptions and opening yourself to new information. <br />
3. Analysing information – sorting out and prioritizing the most important information, while making a decision, implementing a project, handling a conflict etc.<br />
4. Prioritizing your actions – staying focused on your objectives while handling multiple demands and competing priorities.<br />
5. Making trade –offs –recognizing the potential advantages and disadvantages of an idea or course of action.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><u>Characteristics of
strategic thinker </u></b></h3>
1. Curiosity – being genuinely interested in what is going on in your unit, company and industry.<br />
2. Flexibility –trying new approaches and ideas.<br />
3. Focus on the future – remaining alert for opportunities that may prove valuable in the future.<br />
4. Openness – welcoming new ideas from peers, customers, suppliers and business partners.<br />
5. Positive outlook – viewing challenges as opportunities and believing that success is possible.<br />
6. Self-awareness – continually working to broaden your knowledge and experience.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><u>Strategic analysis
tools</u></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Strategic analysis is the process of conducting research on
the business environment within which an organization operates and on the
organization itself, in order to formulate strategy. The strategic analysis tools include PEST,
five forces, value chain and SWOT.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>PEST analysis</b> –
It is a useful tool for understanding the political, economic, socio-cultural
and technological environment that an organization operates in it. It can be
used for evaluating market growth or decline and as such the position, potential
and direction for a business. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Porter’s five forces
model</b> – A tool that can be used to evaluate the five forces of competition
position analysis: buyer power, supplier power, intensity of rivalry, threat of
substitutes and threat of new entrants. This simple framework assesses and
evaluates the competitive strength and position of a business organization.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Value chain analysis</b>
– A tool based on the principle that organizations exist to create value for
their customers. The value chain analysis reveals about your internal strengths
and weaknesses. This method divides your firm into its value –producing
activities, with aim of evaluating what makes the firm strong and what makes it
weak.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>SWOT analysis</b> – A
SWOT analysis is a simple tool that helps in understanding strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities and threats involved in a project or business
activity. It starts by defining the objective of the project or business
activity and identifies the internal and external factors that important to achieving
that objective. Strengths and weaknesses are usually internal to the
organization, while opportunities and threats are usually external.<br />
<br />
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</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><u>Benefits of strategic
thinking</u></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Strategic thinking offers guidance on the actions to achieve
the vision and mission of the organization. Strategic thinking raises awareness
about the threats and opportunities involved in a business activity. Strategic
thinking aligns the organization around a common direction and set of priorities;
improves teamwork and employee’s commitment. Strategic thinking improves the
quality of decision making and speed of implementation. Strategic thinking
improves organizational efficiency and effectiveness. Strategic thinking fosters a culture that
supports new ideas and creativity for the benefit of the organization.</div>
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<i><b> Strategy is undertaken before the battle</b></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><b> Tactics are implemented during battle.</b></i><br />
<i><b> Strategy + Execution= Success.</b></i></div>
</div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-6928752325277184482015-01-29T05:32:00.000-08:002015-02-20T20:48:16.834-08:00The qualities of successful teams<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
A team is a group of individuals committed to a common goal.Teamwork is a complex process: a group of people pooling their skills, talents and knowledge. In good teams, people with complementary skills work together, each playing to their strengths and each recognizing the strengths of the other team members.The criteria for effective team performance are a <u>deep commitment </u>to a <u>common purpose </u>and the sharing of <u>common goals</u>.One of the key elements of a winning team is a <u>feeling of inter-dependency</u>-one for all and all for one (Stuart –Kotze 2008).<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span>Teamwork is the glue which promotes collaboration, commitment, motivation, dependability and accountability among team members. The purpose of a team is to help the organization as a whole to achieve its objectives. Effective teamwork increases problem-solving, decision quality, creativity and innovation. . <b>Vince Lombardi said</b>, “Build for
your team, a feeling of oneness, of dependence upon one another, and of
strength to be derived from unity”.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<u>
Defining teamwork</u></h3>
A team is a group of individuals working together to achieve a common goal or purpose.<br />
Teamwork is the process of working collaboratively with a group of people in order to achieve a goal.<br />
A team is <b><u>small group</u></b> of people with <u><b>complementary skills</b></u> who are committed to a <u><b>common purpose, performance goals and approach</b></u> for which they hold themselves<u><b> mutually accountable.</b></u><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<u>
7 - essential skills for teamwork</u></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Listening –team members listen to each other’s ideas.</div>
Questioning –team members question each other.<br />
Persuading – team members use persuasion.<br />
Respecting – team members respect the opinion of others.<br />
Helping – team members help each other.<br />
Sharing – team members share ideas and report their findings to each other. <br />
Participating – team members contribute to the project.<br />
<h3>
<u>Team building stages</u> (Bruce Tuckman model, 1965)</h3>
Team building is a process that takes place over time. The start of the process is where there is a group of people, two or more and a leader. The end of the process is where there is a high performing team. The development of a group of people into a team takes time, commitment and energy. A successful team exhibits synergy (the sum is greater than the parts) between the individual members of the team. <b>Henry Ford said,</b> “Coming together is a beginning. Keeping together is progress. Working together is success.”<br />
<b>Forming</b> – stage where the team is first formed. Team members start to work together.<br />
<b>Storming</b> – stage where impatience with progress occurs. Team members challenge their shared purpose. <br />
<b>Norming </b>– team members star to resolve their differences, appreciate colleague’s strength and respect the leader. <br />
<b>Performing </b>– stage where the mature team understands its strengths and weaknesses. Members are satisfied with progress.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<u>
Teamwork principles</u></h3>
<b>Strength in numbers</b> – teams function best when the strengths of individuals are combined together.<br />
<b>Integrity</b> – team members exhibit shared perception so that their strengths combine to enhance what they do. <br />
<b>Alignment </b>– the strengths of individuals and the support of colleagues are directed towards meaningful goals in the organization.<br />
<b>Results </b>– the team focuses on delivering results it has a clear performance focus.<br />
<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<u>
Qualities of effective team player</u></h3>
<b>Genuine commitment </b>–An outstanding team player cares about his/her work, the team and the team’s work. The team player exhibits care and commitment to the team’s work.<br />
<b>Open communication </b>– Great team player communicates his/her ideas honestly and clearly and respects the views and opinions of others in the team.<br />
<b>Always reliable</b> – every team needs reliable team members. Reliable team member gets his work done and does his fair share to work hard and meets commitments.<br />
<b>Active listening</b> – good listeners are essential for teams to function effectively. Effective communicators also listen carefully.<br />
<b>Active participation</b> – good team players are active participants. They come prepared for team meetings and listen and speak up in discussions.<br />
<b>Information sharing</b> – Outstanding team player willingly shares information, knowledge and experience. <br />
<b>Cooperation</b> – cooperation is the act of working with others and acting together to accomplish a job. They respond to requests for assistance and take the initiative to offer help.<br />
<b>Exhibits flexibility</b> – Inflexibility is one of the worst human failings. A flexible team member can consider different points of views and compromise when needed. <br />
<b>Problem solver</b> – an exemplary team player is willing to deal with all kinds of problems in a solution – oriented manner.<br />
<b>Support and respect</b> – an outstanding team member treats fellow team members with courtesy and consideration. They show understanding and the appropriate support to other team members.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<u>
The qualities of an effective team leader</u></h3>
The team leader is typically a member of the team who provides guidance and support and has ultimate responsibility for the outcomes of the team (Bachiochi et al 2000). According to Zengu et al (1994), team leaders must (1) build trust and inspire teamwork (2) facilitate and support team decisions and (3) expand team capabilities. Team leaders should have significant responsibility, trust, emotional stability and flexibility.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<u>
Kinds of teams</u></h3>
<b>Global teams</b> – cross-border teams made up of members from different nationalities.<br />
<b>Virtual teams</b> – consist of geographically dispersed members linked via technology.<br />
<b>Cross functional teams </b>– team members from the same hierarchical level but from different work areas, come together to accomplish a task.<br />
<b>Creative team</b> – a type of team created for the purpose of developing innovative solutions. <br />
<b>Tactical team</b> – a team created for the purpose of executing a well defined plan.<br />
<b>Hierarchical teams </b>– are the traditional type of teams and are most common.<br />
<b>Multidisciplinary teams</b> –are groups drawn from different parts of the organization.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<u>
Characteristics of team processes</u></h3>
<b>Team coordination </b>– coordination refers to orderly interpersonal actions required to perform complex tasks. Effective teams harness the variety and minimize the differences of members to ensure that expert skills and knowledge are well utilized. <br />
<b>Team communication </b>– Communication refers to an observable interchange of information and subtle interactions of power, attitudes and values. Effective teams show two-way communication processes with clearly defined responsibilities and appropriate delegation. <br />
<b>Team cohesion</b> – Team cohesion acknowledges member’s personal attraction to the team and the task. Members cooperate interdependently around the team’s task in order to meet team goal.<br />
<b>Team decision making</b> – team decision making is the process through which a team chooses an alternative. Team performance depends largely on the choices made by the team. These choices, in turn, depend on the processes through which teams decide. Therefore high’ performance teams require processes through which teams make high quality decisions.<br />
<b>Team conflict management</b> – team conflict can source both creativity and destruction. For teams to value creative contributions and promote effective problem – solving, diversity needs careful management. Destructive team conflict often has an interpersonal basis in work role or organizational factors.<br />
<b>Social relationships</b> – good social relationships maintain effective teams. Personally team members who are empathetic and supportive offer practical assistance, share information and collaboratively solve problems.<br />
<b>Performance feedback</b> – Individuals, teams and the organization all require accurate and timely feedback about the team’s performance in order to maintain effectiveness.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<u>
Characteristics of successful teams</u></h3>
1. Effective teams are committed to a common purpose and goal. Team members must collectively understand and commit to their team’s purpose.<br />
2. The atmosphere in an effective team tends to be informal, comfortable and relaxed. They are provided with clear expectations and adequate resources to accomplish its goals.<br />
3. The team members must be able to communicate effectively with each other. <br />
4. The team members are free in expressing their feelings as well as their ideas.<br />
5. The members of the team are trustworthy and they rely on each other understanding their own strengths and weaknesses.<br />
6. Effective teams set clear and demanding performance goals. The team defines and achieves a continuous series of small wins along the way to longer goals.<br />
7. The team members appreciate the diversity of knowledge that the other team members offer.<br />
8. The members of the team are creative and unafraid to share opinions, ideas and suggestions.<br />
9. Effective team members avoid conflicts when challenges occur and instead focus on overcoming those challenges.<br />
<div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<u>
Enemies of teamwork </u></h3>
Effective teamwork may be undermined by a variety of problems, for example disorganization, poor communication, gossip, misunderstandings, lack of shared purpose or inadequate procedures for problem-solving.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><u>Benefits
of teamwork</u></b></h3>
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Teamwork can lead to better decisions, products
and services<b>. </b>Teamwork accelerates
growth and heightens productivity and profit margins. Teamwork can allow healthy competition among
team members to outperform each other. Teamwork can be a source of education
and inspiration. Teamwork allows an easier flow of information and solves problems
easily. Teamwork develops trust and
reduces stress. Teamwork helps development, fine tune and executes a project in
the most innovative way possible. Teamwork plays a very important role in
organization as well as our personal lives. <br />
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</div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<u> Family as a successful team</u></h3>
<b>A family is like a team</b> –Make your family a ‘team’ which will bring wonderful benefits to your young children. It can teach them selflessness, cooperation and develop a strong family bond.</div>
</div>
<div>
<b><i> Teamwork is a goal-driven process.</i></b></div>
<div>
<b><i> Unity is strength.</i></b></div>
</div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-31946203947573800092015-01-15T19:34:00.002-08:002015-01-20T06:17:47.765-08:00Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. In his book,<b> Frames of Mind, </b>Gardner described seven distinct types of intelligences-logical-mathematical, verbal-linguistic, visual-spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal. In the next edition of this book he added two more types of intelligences – naturalistic and existential intelligence.<br />
According to MI theory everyone possesses all of the eight intelligences. However the extent to which each is developed in an individual varies from person to person. Each person has a unique intelligence profile. Gardner claims that intelligence is not fixed, but continually expands and changes throughout one’s life. Gardner regards these intelligences not as skills but as<b> “biological potentials”</b> which are realized to a greater or lesser extent depending upon opportunities and motivation (Gardner 2004). According to Gardner’s theory, one form of intelligence is not better than another; they are equally valuable and viable (Gardner 1983). Multiple intelligence theory challenged the dominant definition of intelligence as limited to linguistic and mathematical abilities (verbal and computational intelligences). G-theory defines intelligence as an innate general capacity to learn that varies in amount from person to person, but which is relatively stable over the life span.<br />
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<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Gardner’s definition of intelligence</h3>
According to Gardner, intelligence is, “the talent to solve problems or produce products that are considered valuable in one or several cultures.” He stated that intelligence can be described as the combination of psychological and biological characteristics that enable individuals to solve problems or create products that are valued in one or more cultures (Gardner 1999). Gardner further suggests that thinking, problem solving and creating are valued differently depending on the family and community in which individuals live, learn and work.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Domains of multiple intelligence</h3>
Gardner proposed that there were eight relatively autonomous but interconnected intelligences:<br />
<b>Verbal/linguistic intelligence (word smart / book smart)</b> - refers to the ability to use language masterfully to express oneself rhetorically or poetically e.g. the writer, orator.<br />
<b>Logical/ mathematical intelligence (number smart/logic smart)</b> - refers to the ability to concentrate on mathematical problems, hypotheses and think logically e.g. the scientist, philosopher.<br />
<b>Visual/spatial intelligence (picture smart/art smart)</b> – refers to the ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to solve problems e.g. the architect, engineer, sculptor.<br />
<b>Bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence (body smart/ movement smart) </b>– refers to the ability to use one’s mind to control one’s bodily movement e.g. the athlete, dancer, actor, surgeon.<br />
<b>Musical/ rhythmic intelligence (music smart/ sound smart)</b> – refers to the ability to read, understand, and compose musical pitches, tones and rhythms e.g. the entertainer, musician.<br />
<b>Interpersonal intelligence (people smart/ group smart) </b>– refers to the ability to apprehend the feelings and intention of others e.g. the counsellor, minister, teacher.<br />
<b>Intrapersonal intelligence (self smart/ introspection smart) </b>– refers to the ability to understand one’s own feelings and motivations e.g. the poet, efficiency expert.<br />
<b>Naturalist intelligence (nature smart)</b> – refers to the ability to relate to the natural world with clarity and sensitivity e.g. biologist, environmentalist. <br />
<b>Existential intelligence</b> – refers to the ability to explore complex philosophical questions. <br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Bases of multiple intelligence theory</h3>
According to Gardner, there are biological and cultural bases for multiple intelligences. The neurobiological research indicates that learning is an outcome of the modifications in the synaptic connections between brain cells. The various types of learning result in synaptic connections in different areas of brain. Since different cultures value different types of intelligences, one’s cultural context plays large roles in the formation of intelligence. There is extensive anthropological evidence indicates that certain intelligences (or abilities) exist in highly evolved levels in certain cultures. <br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Claims of multiple intelligence theory</h3>
<div>
The first claim is that all human beings possess all of the eight intelligences. Of course the eight intelligences function together in ways unique to each person. The second claim is that just as we all look different and have different personalities and temperaments, we also exhibit different profiles of intelligences. Gardner suggests that virtually everyone has the capacity to develop all eight intelligences to a reasonably high level of performance, if given the appropriate encouragement, enrichment and instruction. Gardner suggests that intelligence usually work together in complex ways. Gardner argues that most tasks require more than one intelligences working together. Gardner further suggests that there are many ways to be intelligent within each category. There is no set of attributes that one must have to be considered intelligent in a specific area. Multiple intelligence theory emphasizes the rich diversity of ways in which people show their gifts within intelligences as well as between intelligences. Gardner has based his claims for the existence of at least eight intelligences on psychological, neuropsychological, neurobiological, historical and evolutionary evidences as well as on findings from psychological experimental tasks.<br />
<div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Messages of multiple intelligence model</h3>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->We are born with a unique mix of all eight
intelligences.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Intelligences combine in complex ways.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->There are many ways to be intelligent within
each category. </div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Most people can develop each intelligence to an
adequate level of competency.</div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Each multiple intelligence begins as a
biological potential that is shaped exponentially as the individual develops.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Applications of multiple intelligence theory</h3>
<div>
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences provides a theoretical foundation for recognizing the different abilities and talents of students. Gardner states that students learn in different ways and need a variety of experiences to develop all their ways of learning. Multiple intelligence theory can be used for curriculum development, planning instruction, selection of course activities and related assessment strategies. Using multiple intelligences in classrooms engages different styles of learning in order to maximize educational success, intellectual growth and enthusiasm among diverse learners. <br />
Application of multiple intelligences enhances one’s self-awareness and increase self-esteem.<br />
Managers who have multiple intelligences can understand the challenges face with employees. The highest performing managers and leaders have significantly more ‘multiple intelligence competencies’ than other managers.<br />
Businesses can use multiple intelligence theory to structure workshops and training sessions for employees which will enhance teamwork, develop human potential and foster creativity.<br />
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<b><i> Multiple intelligence
theory has applications to education<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-13960782453591671442015-01-13T04:48:00.000-08:002015-02-06T06:49:03.476-08:00Daniel Goleman's theory of Emotional Intelligence<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
Emotional competencies are more
important in contributing to work excellence than pure intellect and expertise
(<b>EQ beats IQ</b>). Emotional intelligence describes the ability, capacity, skill,
to identify, assess and manage the emotions of one’s self, of others and of
groups. Emotional intelligence is a
critical part of social intelligence. Emotional intelligence can be abbreviated to
EI and can also be referred to as emotional quotient (EQ). Some research shows
that intelligence quotient, IQ contributes only about 20% to success in life.
The rest of 80% success depends on one’s EQ. The concept of Emotional
intelligence was formally introduced by Professors <b>Peter Salovey </b>of Yale University
and <b>John Mayer </b>of the University of New Hampshire in 1990. <b>Daniel Goleman,</b> a psychologist and science
journalist popularized the term emotional intelligence in 1995 in the title of
his bestselling book<i>, Emotional
Intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. </i>Emotional intelligence is
more important for a happy and productive life. People who are positive have
been shown to live longer. Leaders high in emotional intelligence are more
productive. <b>Emotional intelligence determines ‘one’s ultimate niche in a society.’ </b>Research shows that “emotion makes thinking more intelligent.” </div>
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<br /></div>
<h3 style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left;">
<b>Concept of emotional intelligence</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
The concept of emotional
intelligence includes two component terms, intelligence and emotion. Intelligence
belongs to cognitive sphere of mental functioning whereas emotions belong to
affective sphere of mental functioning. <b>Intelligence is the ability to acquire
and apply knowledge and skills. </b>The word emotion comes from the Latin word <i>‘emoveo’</i> which means ‘to move from.’
According to Webster’s 1928 Dictionary emotion is ‘a moving of the mind or
soul.’ There are six essentially universal emotions- anger, fear, sadness,
happiness, disgust and surprise – with most other emotions included within
these six categories (Robbins and Judge 2009).
Every one experiences and relates to feelings and emotions. Emotions
contain valuable information on relationships, behaviour and practically every
aspect of the human world around us. </div>
<h3 style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left;">
<b>Definitions </b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
Emotional intelligence is the
ability to perceive, express, understand and regulate emotions. </div>
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<b>Salovey and Mayer (1997)</b> defined
emotional intelligence as “the ability to perceive emotions, integrate emotions
to facilitate thought, understand emotions and to regulate emotions to promote
personal growth.” </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<b>Goleman (1998) </b>defined Emotional
intelligence as ‘the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of
others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves
and in our relationships.” </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<b>Reuven Bar-on (1997) </b>described EQ
as “an array of personal, emotional and social abilities and skills that
influence one’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and
pressures”.</div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Principles of emotional intelligence</b></h3>
</div>
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There are two basic principles
associated with emotional intelligence. First emotional intelligence is
about being aware of emotions
–identifying and understanding emotions-both of your own and other people’s
emotions. Second emotional intelligence is about using and managing emotions of
our own and other people’s. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Emotional quotient, EQ</h3>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
EQ is an inventory designed to measure the capacity of effectively recognizing and managing our own emotions and those of others. EQ is the ability to make deeper connections at 3 levels: with ourselves (personal mastery), with another person (one-to-one) and within groups/ teams.</div>
<h3 style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left;">
<b>Models of emotional intelligence</b></h3>
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<b>1. Ability EI model</b> – the mental ability model focuses on emotions
themselves and their interactions with thought (Mayer and Salovey 1997). This
model proposes four main types of emotional abilities:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<b>Emotional perception</b> refers to the ability to recognize and
decipher emotions in oneself and others as well as other stimuli including
faces, pictures, stories and music. </div>
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<b>Emotional use</b> refers to the ability to apply emotions to cognitive
activities such as thinking, reasoning, problem solving and decision making. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<b>Emotional understanding</b> refers to the ability to understand
emotional information and the causes of emotions and how emotions combine,
progress and change from one to another. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<b>Emotional management</b> refers to the ability to be open to feelings
and employ effective strategies to promote personal understanding and growth. </div>
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<b>2. Trait EI model</b> – this model was published in 2009 by Petrides
and colleagues. Trait EI model is a constellation of emotion – related
self-perceptions located at the lower levels of personality. Trait EI model refers to an individual’s own
perceptions of their emotional abilities, as opposed to the ability –based
model which refers to actual abilities.</div>
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<b>3. Mixed models of EI</b>- this model is introduced by Daniel Goleman
that defines EI as a wide range of competencies and skills that drive
leadership performance. There are four tenets to this model: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<b>Self awareness</b> is the ability to
understand your emotions, recognize their impact and use them to inform
decisions.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<b>Self-management</b> involves
controlling your emotions and impulses and adapting to circumstances. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<b>Social awareness</b> is the ability
to sense, understand and react to the emotions of others within social
situations.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<b>Relationship management</b> is the
ability to inspire, influence and connect with others and to manage conflict.</div>
<h3 style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left;">
<b>Origin of emotional intelligence</b></h3>
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The emotional brain (EB) is that
part of the human brain that generates emotions. The amygdala –the part of the
limbic brain –is considered to be the emotional centre of our brain and performs
a primary role in the processing and memory of emotional reactions. Amygdala is
an almond shaped brain structure in the limbic system. The emotional response
is relatively less influenced by genetic factors and more by the limbic system
of the brain. People seem to develop greater emotional intelligence not in the
early childhood but in the adult years. Emotional intelligence seems to be
largely a learned response. We continue to develop EI as we go through life and
learn from our experiences. <br />
<br />
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<b>Characteristics of emotional skills</b></h3>
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There are five key
characteristics that distinguish an emotionally intelligent person. </div>
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<b>Self-awareness</b>- having a realistic assessment of his abilities.</div>
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<b>Self-regulation</b> – ability to control emotions and impulses.</div>
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<b>Motivation </b>– deepest preference to achieve our goals.</div>
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<b>Empathy </b>–is the ability to identify with and understand the wants,
needs and viewpoints of other people.</div>
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<b>Social skills </b>– People with good social skills can manage disputes,
are excellent communicators, and are masters at building and maintaining
relationships. People with good social skills can persuade and lead, negotiate
and settle disputes for cooperation and team work. </div>
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<b>Components of emotional intelligence</b></h3>
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Daniel Goleman (1995) suggests
that emotional intelligence consists of five major components:</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Knowing our own emotions.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Managing one’s emotions.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Motivating our emotions.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Recognizing the emotions of others and</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Handling relationships.</div>
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Benefits of emotional intelligence at work</h3>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Emotionally intelligent people manage stress
better at work.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->They improve their relationships with
co-workers.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->They deal more effectively with their
supervisors.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->They are more productive and effectively manage
their work priorities.</div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->They become better team player, managers or leaders.</div>
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In general emotional intelligence
has been proven to:</div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">¨<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Increase workplace productivity.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 90.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level5 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">¨<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Reduce stress.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 90.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level5 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">¨<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Moderate conflict.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 90.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level5 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">¨<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Promote understanding and relationships.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 90.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level5 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">¨<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Foster stability and continuity.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 90.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level5 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">¨<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Heighten self awareness.</div>
<h3 style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left;">
<b>Advantages of emotional intelligence </b></h3>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Emotional intelligence is primarily about
managing oneself well and enhancing one’s relationship with others in order to
be happier, healthier and more successful. </div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->According to research at the University of Toronto,
positive, happy emotions and moods may open one’s mind and increase creative
thinking.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Positive emotions enhance problem-solving skills
so that positive people find better solutions to problems (Isen 2001).</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Emotionally intelligent people can help manage
stressful situations and improve negotiation and conflict resolution.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Multiple studies have shown that the most
successful leaders in organizations have higher levels of emotional
intelligence than others. Emotional intelligence has been shown to be more
important in rising to the top of an organization than cognitive competencies.
Companies have realized that IQ alone cannot predict an individual’s performance
or success.</div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->6.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Emotional intelligence is the most significant
for successful project outcomes. Project managers must be emotionally
intelligent. </div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->7.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Research indicates that social and emotional
skills are associated with successes in effective teaching, student learning,
quality student-teacher relationships and academic performance. </div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->8.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Physicians who are better at recognizing
emotions of patients are more successful at treating them than their less
sensitive counterparts.</div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->9.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Executives who ‘derail’ are often seen as
lacking emotional strength.<br />
<b><i>Emotional
intelligence influences job performance</i></b><br />
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<b><i><o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
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bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-22274500003699214782014-12-29T07:22:00.001-08:002015-01-28T19:29:16.148-08:00How to improve your digestive health<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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A healthy digestive system is fundamental to a healthy body.
Optimal digestion is the foundation of optimal energy. Digestion allows the
body to get the nutrients and energy it needs from the food. The digestive
system is basically a tube of 25 and 30 feet long running through the body from
mouth to anus. The digestive tract and the accessory organs of digestion make
up the digestive system. The organs of the digestive system include the oral
cavity (mouth), oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and
anus. The accessory organs of digestion include the salivary glands, teeth,
liver, gall bladder and pancreas. Over a lifetime no less than 100 tons of food
passes along the digestive tract and 300,000 litres of digestive juices are
produced by the body to break it down. Digestive juices flow from the walls of
the stomach and small intestines, pancreas and gall bladder. Enzymes, bile and
bacteria break down the food.<br />
<b>Facts on digestion</b><br />
Digestion is a function of an organ system which involves a series of processes. There are 5 processes that are involved with
digestion: eating, breaking down food into simpler chemical compounds,
absorption, assimilation and elimination of waste. Digestive organs can become
disturbed for a multiplicity of reasons: poor diet, irregular eating habits,
physical and mental strain, viral or bacterial or fungal or parasitic
infections, allergies, toxicity and drugs. Digestive discomfort can express in
many forms: stomach pain, bloating, indigestion, constipation, diarrhoea and
foul smelling gas.<br />
<b>Statistics</b><br />
More than 80 million Americans live with and suffer from
chronic digestive problems. It is estimated that 4 million Americans have
constipation and 60 million Americans have acid reflux. Approximately 12 million people in the United States suffer from food allergy. One-third to one –half of all populations have digestive illness. It is estimated that 25 to 50% of all digestion- related ailments
can be prevented and / or modified by proper eating, exercise, natural
medicines and lifestyle modifications.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Definitions</b></h3>
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<b>The digestive system</b>
comprises a group of organs that break down food and absorb the nutrients used
by the body for fuel. The digestive system begins with the mouth and extends
through the oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine, ending
with the rectum and anus. The most important roles of digestive system include ingestion,
propulsion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption and
defecation. Gastroenterology is a branch of medicine concerned with the
function and disorders of the digestive system. </div>
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<b>Digestion</b> refers
to the breakdown of food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and
assimilated by the body. The process of digestion occurs as the food you eat
travels through the digestive tract. The food is kept moving by muscular action
called peristalis. The main work of our digestive system is processing the food
we eat to obtain energy and nutrients.<br />
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<b>Good digestive health</b>
is the ability to break down, absorb and use nutrients and to eliminate waste
products from foods and beverages in a way that optimizes one’s health and
vitality.</div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Importance of the
digestive system</b></h3>
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The digestive system represents not only the physical
‘engine’ of the body, but also the center of emotions and the seat of
subconscious. Two-thirds of our immune
system is located in and around our digestive system. According to Dr. Michael
Gershon in his book <i>The second Brain</i>
(1998), all of the neurotransmitters that are found in the brain are also found
in the digestive system –hence the term ‘second brain.’ The digestive system
actually has its own nervous system called the enteric nervous system (ENS) and
over 95% of serotonin is made in the gut (Gershon 1998). The enteric nervous
system functions without the direction from the brain. The activity of the
digestive system is regulated by the rich network of nerves found in the
enteric nervous system (ENS).</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Factors in good
digestion</b></h3>
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The factors that promote good digestion include timing,
manner or eating, quantity of food, condition of the food, quality of the food
and appropriateness of the food to your body. </div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]-->Timing – when you eat;</div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Manner – how you eat;</div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Quantity – how much you eat;</div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]-->Condition of the food –raw, cooked, warm or
cold;</div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Quality of the food – fresh, clean and pure;</div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]-->Appropriateness of the food – whether the food
is compatible with your digestive capacity and relevant to your nutritional
requirements. </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Four R's gut healing program</b></h3>
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Digestive problems are part and parcel of our life. There is
a 4-R’s program with the following steps: <b>Remove,
Replace, Re-introduce and repair</b>. In the first step, remove the things that
are causing the problem such as bacteria, parasite, Candida or yeast overgrowth
and potential food allergens and toxins. Then replace the diet with
healthy food, dietary fiber and pure water for regular elimination. In the
third step, re-introduce the gut with dietary probiotics or supplementary
enzymes. Lastly repair the gut lining, so food and germs do not get through to
the blood stream and cause a bad reaction called ‘leaky gut syndrome.’ It is reported that leaky gut syndrome is
thought to cause all kinds of problems from food allergies to irritable bowel
syndrome and colitis.<br />
<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Herbal and nutritional healing of digestive disorders</b></h3>
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Traditional Chinese medications use concoctions of kiwifruit
as a tonic to find relief from
indigestion<b>. Kiwifruits</b> have
substantial amounts of prebiotics, phenolics, dietary fibers and vegetarian
digestive enzymes. <b>Chamomile</b> is an
all –around stomach soother. Bitter herbs like dandelion can help improve
digestion. Bitter herbs are great helpers for optimal digestion.
Deglycyrrhizinated <b>licorice root </b>may reduce heartburn, acid reflux and gastritis. Licorice protects the mucous membranes that line the
digestive tract against the damaging effects of stomach acid. This effect can
be very helpful for those with heartburn. <b>Slippery
elm</b> is another herb that acts as a barrier against stomach acid which again
is important for those with heartburn. <b>Aloe vera </b>reduces mucosal inflammation, prevents acid reflex and improves gut healing. The herb <b>milk thistle</b> may be a useful supplement in the case of constipation
caused by a lethargic liver. Digestive enzymes found in tropical fruits such as
bromelain from <b>pineapple (</b>which
reduces tissue irritation) and papain from <b>papayas</b>
(which soothes the stomach) can provide help in digesting proteins as well.
Tomatoes keep the digestive system healthy by preventing both constipation and
diarrhea. A healthy complement of <b>intestinal
flora</b> (the digestive bacteria acidophilus, bifidus and lactobacillus) is
essential to good digestive health. <b>Dietary
fibers</b> help promote regular defecation and prevent constipation. Fiber
–rich foods include berries, greens, beans, apples, pears, oats and flaxseeds. The
daily recommended intake of dietary fibers is 20 to 35 grams per day. <b>Lubricant
foods</b> and herbs help the stool move through the digestive tract called
demulcents. The demulcents include okra, flaxseed, oats, kelp, cactus, natto,
toasted seasame oil,olive oil, acacia and chia seeds.</div>
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<b>Digestive level of
foods</b></h3>
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Some foods are harder to digest than others. Proteins are
the hardest to digest. Protein digestion requires an acid medium (hydrochloric
acid) and the enzyme pepsin for its digestion. Starch digestion requires an
alkaline medium and the enzyme ptyalin for its digestion. Starchy foods are
easier to digest. The non-starchy vegetables are very easy to digest. The
easiest food of all to digest is fruits. </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Food combining for
better digestion</b></h3>
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Do not combine protein foods with acidic foods or fats or
starch foods or sugars. Do not combine two concentrated protein foods at the
same meal. Do not combine starches with sugars or starch foods with acidic
foods. Eat one concentrated starch food at a meal. Do not eat acid fruits with
proteins. Do not combine sweet fruits with proteins, starches or acid fruits. Acid
fruits may be used with sub-acid fruits and sub-acid fruits may be used with
sweet fruits. Combine fruits only with lettuce and celery. Salads combine very
well with proteins or starches. Do not consume melons with any other foods. </div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Foods for healthy
digestion </b></h3>
</div>
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A healthy diet consists of a good balance of macronutrients
(proteins, fats and carbohydrates), prebiotics and probiotics, essential fatty
acids, minerals and vitamins. A healthy
diet is one that helps to maintain or improve health by providing appropriate amounts
of nutrients. Super foods for healthy digestion include yogurt, high fiber
whole grain bread, rice, whole grain cereals, tofu, miso, tempeh, dandelion
green, sunflower seeds, sea vegetables, flaxseed oil, papayas, garlic and sage
leaves. Our food choices play a significant role in the quality of our
digestion.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Tips to improve your digestive health</h3>
1. Eat a balanced and varied diet with fresh fruits and fresh vegetables. Eat four to six light meals per day. Eat more foods containing complex carbohydrates and fiber. Avoid over eating, only eat as much as you need.<br />
2. Take small bites; Eat slowly and mindfully. Don’t eat before bed and walk after each meal.<br />
3. Eat right type of fats and eat foods containing complete proteins, but in moderation. <br />
4. Get enough fluids.<br />
5. Give up caffeine; eliminate alcohol and nicotine.<br />
6. Exercise is crucial to good bowel health.<br />
7. Reduce depression and anxiety.<br />
8. Listen to your body; be cautious about constipation, gas or upset stomach – it’s a sign you need to make changes in your dietary habits.<br />
<b><i> The digestive impulse is the life of your stomach</i></b></div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-37467302333849960502014-12-10T03:35:00.000-08:002014-12-31T22:06:17.630-08:00Health benefits of edible seaweeds<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Oceans cover approximately 71 percent of the earth’s surface
(362 million square km) and contain 95 percent of the habitat space on the
planet. The ocean is the richest reservoir of both living and non-living resources.<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span>The marine environment comprises approximately half of the total global
biodiversity. Seaweeds are one of the constituents of natural resources
globally used for human welfare. Seaweed is the common term used to refer large
marine algae growing in the shallow waters along the ocean shores. There are
about 8000 species of seaweeds along the world’s coastal lines. In general
seaweeds inhabit about 2% of the sea floor. Ecologically seaweed account for
food and shelter for marine life.<br />
Seaweeds are used as human food, livestock
feed and fertilizer for land crops in many countries. More than 160 species of
sea vegetables commonly known as seaweeds are consumed throughout the world. Seaweeds can be consumed directly as raw,
dried or cooked. Seaweeds are eaten for their food value, flavours, colours and
textures and are typically combined with other types of food. Edible seaweeds
include Porphyra (Nori), Rodymenia (Dulse), Laminaria(Kombu), undaria (Wakame)
and Ulva (sea lettuce). Edible seaweeds have been shown to be high in essential
pigments, vitamins, minerals, trace elements, proteins and phytochemicals as
well as healthy dietary fibers and fats.</div>
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<b>Worldwide consumption
of seaweeds</b></h3>
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Seaweed is consumed in many traditional European societies,
in Iceland and western Norway, the Atlantic coast of France, northern and
western Ireland, Wales and some coastal parts of South West England as well as
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. Traditionally, sea vegetables have been more
commonly eaten in Asian cultures. In many countries in Asia notably in China,
Japan, Korea and Indonesia, seaweed products are important dietary resources,
which constitute a substantial part of the total food intake (staple food). In Philippines, Burma and Vietnam several species of seaweeds are eaten as
a salad or in one form or another. The most commonly consumed seaweeds which
grow in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans are alaria, arame, hijiiki, nori,
dulse and several kinds of kelp. Porphyra sp. which is commercially known as
nori or laver is most widely consumed among edible red seaweed worldwide
(Watanable et al 1999). Nori is commonly
eaten by the Japanese. The brown seaweed Sargassum (Gulfweed, sea holly) is
used in soups and soy sauce. </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Definition of
seaweeds</b></h3>
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Edible seaweeds are algae that can be eaten and used in the
preparation of food. It Typically contains high amounts of fiber and they contain a complete protein. They may
belong to one of several groups of multicellular algae: the red algae, green
algae and brown algae (ref: en.wickipedia.org).</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Kinds of seaweeds</b></h3>
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Seaweeds are plants, though less complex ones than land
plants. Without roots or intricate tissues, seaweed must absorb nutrients from
the sea water. To survive, they form root-like parts to attach themselves to
rocks or other stable items. Seaweeds are mainly classified into 3 major
classes based on their pigmentation namely brown, red and green algae which are
referred to as phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceae and Chlorophyceae respectively (Khan
et al. 2010). Three basic classes of pigments found in marine algae are
<b>chlorophylls, carotenoids and phycoerythrin.</b> Green seaweeds such as sea lettuce mainly
contain chlorophyll. Red seaweeds which include dulse, laver,nori, agar and
Irish moss have red pigment, phycoerythrin. Brown seaweeds such as kelp, kombu,
alaria, arame, wakame , seapalm and hiijiki depend on brown pigments from other
carotenoid </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Proximate composition
of seaweeds</b></h3>
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Seaweeds are high in ash (37-46%) and dietary fibers
(25-40%) and low in lipid content (0.29-1.11%) on dry weight basis. The protein
content of many seaweeds ranges between 4 and 25% of the dry weight. Generally
the protein content of brown algae is low (3-15% of dry weight) compared with
that of green (10-26% of dry weight) and red algae (35-47% of dry weight)
(Fitzgerald et al. 2011). The lipids present in seaweeds are rich in omega-3
polyunsaturated fatty acids in particular EPA and to a lesser extent DHA, which
are important to human health. Seaweeds contain 33-62% total fibers on a dry
weight basis. The sulphated polysaccharides present in red and brown algae act
as dietary fibers. The major seaweed colloids include agar, algin, carrageenan,
and related colloids. These phycocolloids are materials such as gelatine,
pectin and starch that have the property of forming gels. Algin is produced
from brown seaweeds, while agar and carrageenan are from red algae. The
phycocolloids are used as thickeners, humectants, coagulants, bulking agents,
flocculation agents and in the preparation of antibiotic carriers. Agar finds
much use in bakery products, confectionary making and in puddings, creams and
jellied products. Seaweed powders generally contain 10 to 30% minerals, 20 to
45% proteins and up to 40% soluble fibers.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Popular edible
seaweeds</b></h3>
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The red seaweed, Nori is rich in iodine and iron and quite
high in protein. It is also a good source of vitamins C and A, potassium,
magnesium and riboflavin (B2) and it is low in fat. Another red seaweed, Dulse
is highly nutritious containing protein (10 to 20%), magnesium, iron and
B-carotene. Carrageenan and agar are extracted routinely from red algae. Irish
moss is rich in retinol and minerals. It is widely used in all sorts of food
products because it has emulsifying and jelling properties. The green seaweed,
Wakame contains fucoxanthin, calcium, iron, natural sodium and vitamin C. The brown seaweeds include such familiar
forms as rock seaweeds, kelps and sargassum. The brown seaweeds are major
sources of iodine. In addition to iodine, the brown seaweed kelp (Kombu) also
provides iron, magnesium and folate
(vitamin B9). Kelp is used to be the main source for preventing goitre and
treating thyroid conditions. Sea lettuce
and sugar kelp are the two seaweeds popularly eaten by humans. Seaweeds
represent one of the most nutritious plant foods. In Asian culture, seaweeds
have always been of particular interest as food sources.<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span>Seaweeds are ones that can be used in a whole range of ways: as salads, in soups, for sushi, in deserts, in bread, as snacks and in candy or as herbs and flavour enhancers. Seaweeds are most
commonly used in soups, as salad garnishes and as a seasoning (in flake forms).
Seaweeds are available in health food stores in dried, powder, flake and
granular forms.<br />
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<b>Health benefits of
seaweeds</b></h3>
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Edible seaweeds are ideal sources of chemical compounds for
improving health and well-being of humans.
Several bioactive substances with antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities
have reported from seaweeds. Tumour reductions, inhibition of cancer cell
proliferation, free radical scavenging and significant antioxidant activity
have been exhibited by red and brown seaweeds. The<b> sulphated polysaccharides
</b>found in some of the brown seaweeds are being explored as antiviral agents and as
aids in preventing blood clots.<b> Sodium alginate </b>found in brown seaweeds has the
ability to protect the surface membranes of stomach and intestine. It acts as a
haemostatic agent and has tried in the treatment of esophagitis and
urolithiasis. <b>Fucoidan,</b> a polysaccharide
found in brown algae has shown promising antiviral, immunomodulating and
antibacterial activities. Fucoidan also inhibits the angiogenesis and
proliferation of human cancer cells. <b>Phlorotannins</b> (polyphenols) from brown
algae have been shown to possess multiple physiological activities such as
antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and
antiallergic properties. <b>Taurine </b>is an amino acid present in high concentration
in red algae. Taurine acts as an antioxidant and reduces serum lipids thereby
prevents atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. <b>Calcium phosphate</b> in
seaweeds helps to reduce osteoporosis by nourishing the bones. The high content of <b>potassium</b> in seaweed is
good for the heart and kidneys. Seaweed nourishes the membranes, making it good
for nervous disorders, skin conditions, colds and constipation. The<b> chromium
</b>content in seaweeds helps to control blood sugar levels. In general seaweed
intake may strengthen the immune system, reduce cholesterol and improve metabolism
and digestion. Consumption of seaweed is helpful in combating fatigue caused by
slow thyroid activity. Seaweed intake support thyroid function. Dietary intake
of brown algae is effective for curing goitre because of their <b>iodine </b>content.<br />
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<b><i> Seaweeds are excellent sources of minerals.<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
</div>
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bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-16788135019988951262014-11-30T04:29:00.002-08:002014-12-31T22:06:39.890-08:00Health benefits of dietary glyconutrients<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Glyconutrients are plant carbohydrates. These glyconutrients
combine with other molecules, proteins and lipids to form <b>glycoforms or glycoconjugates</b> which coat cell surfaces. There are
over 200 carbohydrates or sugars found in natural resources, but only 8 are
essential to bodily functions <b>(essential saccharides/sugars).</b> Glyconutrients come from plant roots, mushrooms and other foods
and can be taken as dietary supplements.
They enhance cell-to-cell communication, modulate immune function and
increase the body’s own production of stem cells. Glyconutrients have been
described as <b>“the rising star in the
world of alternative medicine.” </b>Glyconutrients
help your body heal, repair, regenerate, regulate and protect itself. Most healthy
people can generate every other essential saccharide from glucose.<br />
Glyconutrient compounds were abundant in most primitive diets but they are
virtually absent from modern western diets rich in refined foods. Only two of
the essential sugars, glucose and galactose are common in our diets. The 8
saccharides (sugars) serve as the building blocks for the manufacture of large
molecules made of sugars in combination with proteins or lipids. Glycoproteins
are molecules made of sugars and proteins; glycolipids are made of sugars and
fats. It is common to refer to the sugars of glycoproteins and glycolipids as <b>glycans</b>. Both glycoproteins and
glycolipids are found at the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane. In
Greek, glycol means ‘sweet’; glyconutrient literally means ‘sweet nutrient.’
Strangely glyconutrients are not sweet, sometimes they are bitter and some are
virtually tasteless. </div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Definition</b></h3>
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Glycobiology is defined as the study of the structure,
biosynthesis and biology of saccharides (sugar chains or glycans) that are
widely distributed in nature. Sugars are known chemically as saccharides. Glycans
constitute a major portion of a
glycoconjugate. The surfaces of most types of cells are effectively covered
with a dense coating of sugars giving rise to the so-called glycocalyx (tiny
antennae). These tiny antennae allow the cells to interact and to be able to
absorb and process nutrients, hormones and other chemicals. </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Essential sugars</b></h3>
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There are eight essential saccharides our body needs. They
are: glucose, galactose, mannose, fucose, xylose, N-acetyl glucosamine,
N-acetyl galactosamine and N-acetyl neuroaminic acid (a sialic acid). </div>
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<b>Glucose</b> – is the
primary source of energy for all plants and animals and is quickly absorbed
into the blood stream. It has been shown to enhance memory, stimulate calcium
absorption and enhance cell-to-cell communication.</div>
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<b>Galactose</b> – is
found in dairy products and human breast milk. Galactose enhances wound
healing, cell-to-cell communication and calcium absorption. People who are
lactose intolerant may be lacking this essential sugar.</div>
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<b>Mannose </b>–is most
important of all essential sugars. It forms an integral part of the immune
system. Its deficiency can lead to inflammation and disease. The mannose sugar can reduce inflammation even in rheumatoid arthritis. </div>
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<b>Fucose</b> –studies
have shown that it may help long term memory, prevent respiratory infections
and inhibit tumour growth. The glycoconjugates of fucose are essential to
controlling inflammation and enhancing immunity.</div>
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<b>Xylose </b>– is
important for cell-to-cell communication and also acts as an antibacterial and
anti-fungal agent.</div>
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<b>N-acetyl glucosamine</b>
– is an immune modulator and has anti-viral properties.</div>
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<b>N-acetyl
galactosamine</b> – it helps in cell-to-cell communication.</div>
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<b>N-acetyl neuraminic
acid</b> (sialic acid) – is important for brain function particularly for
development and learning.N-acetyl neuraminic acid is helpful for clearing brain fog. It is found in breast milk, organic hen’s eggs and
whey proteins.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Food sources</b></h3>
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<b>Glucose – </b>nearly
all ripe fruits and vegetables, honey, grapes, bananas, mangos, cherries,
strawberries, cocoa, aloe vera, licorice, garlic, Echinacea, hawthorn and kelp (seaweed).</div>
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<b>Galactose</b> – dairy products, fenugreek, kelp(seaweed), apple,
apricots, bananas, cherries, berries, peach, pear, kiwi, mangoes, avocado, broccoli, Brussels’ sprouts, cabbage,
cucumber, carrot, cauliflower, celery, potato, eggplant, peas, pumpkin, and
spinach.</div>
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<b>Mannose</b> – Aloe vera, kelp(seaweed), shiitake mushroom, fenugreek,
cabbage, eggplant, tomatoes, turnips, and gooseberries.</div>
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<b>Fucose </b>– kelp, sea weed,and brewer’s yeast.</div>
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<b>Xylose-</b> kelp, guava, pears, black berries, logan berries,
rasp berries, aloe vera, Echinacea, boswelia, broccoli, spinach, eggplant,
peas, green beans, cabbage and corn.</div>
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<b>N-acetyl glucosamine </b>– shiitake mushroom, shark cartilage,
beef cartilage and red algae.</div>
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<b>N-acetyl galactosamine </b>– beef cartilage, shark cartilage and
red algae.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Herbal sources </b></h3>
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<b>Aloe vera</b> – There
are more than 240 species of aloe which grows in Africa, the Near East, Asia,
Europe, the southern Mediterranean and the Americas. The gel of the Aloe vera leaves
contains about 200 health promoting compounds including 20 minerals, 18 amino
acids and 12 vitamins. The nutrient gel provides your body with 3
glyconutrients such as glucose, mannose and xylose.The Aloe vera gel reduces inflammation, itching, and pain
when topically applied on the skin. The Aloe vera juice which is loaded with
phytochemicals, minerals, vitamins and amino acids works as an anti-inflammatory
agent in the digestive tract and is often used to ease heart burn and
constipation.</div>
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<b>Mushrooms </b>–
edible mushrooms are the richest source of glyconutrients. The health benefits
of mushrooms have been known for more than 5000 years. Several varieties of
mushrooms offer immunomodulatory, lipid –lowering, anti-tumour and other
beneficial or therapeutic health effects without any significant toxicity. Shiitake
mushroom is among the foods and herbal medicines in Chinese diet for its ‘anti-aging
properties.’ In oriental folk medicine, shiitake mushroom is a food that
activates the blood. It is used in the treatments of colds, measles in
children, smallpox, bronchial inflammation, stomach-ache, headache, faintness
and dropsy (fluid accumulation in tissues).</div>
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<b>Shells of crustaceans</b>
– one of the essential sugars N-acetyl glucosamine is found in the shell of
crustaceans including shrimps, crabs and krill.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Functional role of
glycoproteins</b></h3>
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Glycoproteins increase natural killer-cell function. These
activated killer cells protect the healthy individuals from the effects of
toxins and free radicals, which could cause infections and cancer formation.
Moreover glycoproteins increase T –cell function and decrease abnormally
elevated apoptosis without disturbing the normal balance in the body.<br />
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<b>Health benefits</b></h3>
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The essential sugars have potent antiviral, antibacterial,
antiparasitic and antitumor effects. They increase the body’s immunity to
viruses including those that cause the common colds, influenza, herpes and
hepatitis. Glyconutrients seem to play an important role in immune and hormonal
function. Glyconutrients are essential in cellular communication and are
important for pregnant and lactating women. Several studies have linked a
deficiency of glyconutrients to diseases such as diabetes, ADHD, lupus,
infertility and cancer. Glyconutrients have a role in lowering triglycerides
and low-density lipoproteins or LDL (the ‘bad’ cholesterol) and raising
high-density lipoproteins or HDL (the ‘good’ cholesterol). Glyconutrients have been quite effective in treating disorders associated with an over-active immune system such as allergies and asthma. Glyconutrients may help relieve symptoms of chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia. <span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span>Glyconutrients have
produced positive effects in children suffering from ADD (Attention Deficit
Disorder) and ADHD ( Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder). Glyconutrients
may even inhibit cancerous tumour growth and tumour cell metastasis.<br />
<b><i> Intake of glyconutrients offer healthy functioning of your immune system</i></b></div>
</div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-92137669737518717422014-11-27T04:38:00.002-08:002014-12-31T22:06:52.398-08:00Health benefits of acid-alkaline food balance<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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pH balance is one of the most important factors in
maintaining health and life. A normal body pH balance is the first line of
defense against aging and disease. All body tissues and organs normally
maintain pH within narrow range by carefully balancing acidic and alkaline
elements. All disease is caused by autotoxication (self-poisoning) due to acid
accumulation in the body. Changes in pH alter virtually all body functions. Prolonged
acid-alkali imbalance could lead to degenerative diseases such as diabetes,
arthritis, osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease and rapid aging among others. Alkaline
substances such as potassium, calcium and magnesium are needed to neutralize
the harmful acids and encourage acid excretion. Nutritionally speaking, the
alkaline foods provide greater amounts of alkaline substances such as calcium,
magnesium and potassium. It is generally accepted that diet is an important
source of the alkali and acids one’s body needs. Balance body pH will give you
more natural vitality, better metabolism and less internal and external signs
of aging.</div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>The acid-alkaline
theory of disease</b></h3>
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In his book <i>A new
Health Era</i>, Dr. William Howard Hay (1933) stated that all disease is caused
by acid accumulation in the body. This acid-alkaline theory of disease is an
over-simplification. In his book <i>My
Journey to the Fountain</i> <i>of Youth, </i>Azahara
Carter stated that there are two principles underlying the concept of
acid-alkaline balance: first those factors such as diet, age, lifestyle habits
and emotional state contribute to an overly acidic system and second that an
overly acidic system is a breeding ground for disease. It is probable that the
acid –alkaline imbalance can be a large factor in the onset of serious health
issues such as osteoporosis, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancers,
arthritis, kidney problems, chronic fatigue and many other health challenges.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Acid-forming and
alkaline- forming foods</b></h3>
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Depending on the chemical composition of the metabolized
foods (known as ‘ash’), the foods are categorized in to acid-forming and
alkaline forming foods.</div>
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<b>Acid-forming foods –</b>
these foods are not acidic themselves, but form acids in the body during the
metabolic process and digestion e.g. animal fats, fork, poultry, beef, bacon
and dairy products.</div>
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<b>Acidic foods –</b>
these foods are acidic, but can have either an acid-forming or an alkaline
forming effect in the body e.g. berries, citrus fruits, pulses and sour milk.</div>
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<b>Alkaline foods and
alkali-forming foods –</b> The strength of the alkali in alkaline foods does
not reflect their alkali forming qualities in the body. Alkali-forming foods
are not alkaline themselves, but they possess good alkali- forming and de-acidifying
qualities e.g. most fresh vegetables, leafy greens, potato, bananas, spinach,
celery and melon.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Health effects of
acid/ alkaline imbalance</b></h3>
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The acid / alkaline balance in the body is central to good
health. The normal waste products of cellular metabolism are acid. The body
needs alkaline to balance the acid out and the only source of alkaline is from
the food we consume or the correct supplements we take. A healthy diet should
consist of approximately 75% alkaline ash-forming foods and 25% acid
ash-forming foods. Usually the proportion of acid forming food we consume is
much higher than that of alkaline food. </div>
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Acidic waste can seriously damage body cells and vital
organs. An acidic environment results in lack of energy, chronic fatigue and
susceptibility to disease. A build up of acidity decreases the body’s ability
to absorb minerals and other nutrients; decrease energy production in cells; decrease
the body’s ability to repair damaged cells and decrease its ability to detoxify
heavy metals. Most cancer cells thrive in an acidic environment. Inflammatory disease, arthritis, respiratory
conditions and cardiovascular diseases are more prevalent in acidic
environment. A build up of acidity prevents body organs from functioning
properly, thickens the blood and starts to dissolve the linings of the
arteries.</div>
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On the other hand an alkaline environment helps to heal the
body, slower aging process, and relives suffering from colds, headaches and the
flu. </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Symptoms of body pH
imbalance</b></h3>
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The symptoms of excess body acidity include fluctuating
energy levels, mental fatigue and dullness, depression, headaches, lower back
pain, decreased vitality, irritability and sinus-related problems. The symptoms
of excessive alkalinity include tension, nervousness, muscle tension or spasms,
slow recovery from injuries and travelling muscle pain.</div>
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<b>Nutritional balance</b></h3>
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Right combination of green raw foods, whole foods, vegetables,
juices, herbs and water will reduce the build up of acid, toxins and free
radicals from oxidation and promote a healing body environment.</div>
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60/40: To maintain health, the diet should consist of 60%
alkaline –forming foods and 40% acid-forming foods.</div>
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80/20: To restore health, the diet should consist of 80%
alkaline-forming foods and 20% acid-forming foods.</div>
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Dr. Robert Young heralds that a diet that is made up of 80%
alkaline producing foods and 20% acid producing foods will allow people to
achieve their healthier bodies and healthier lives.</div>
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Generally alkaline –forming foods include most fruits, green
vegetables, peas, beans, lentils, spices, herbs and seasonings, seeds and nuts.
Generally acid – forming foods include meat, fish, poultry, dairy, eggs, grains
and legumes. Processed, micro-waved, refined and fried foods, soft drinks, alcohol
and coffee produce acids.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Concluding remarks</h3>
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Human body is slightly alkaline and therefore it is better
for your health to eat a diet composed of alkaline foods. Disease begins when
our bodies turn acidic. In his book <i>How
to get well</i> (1984), Paavo Airola, a naturopath said that, “acidosis or
over-acidity in the body tissues, is one of the basic causes of disease, especially
the arthritic and rheumatic diseases.” Another author Michael Colgan in his
book <i>The New Nutrition</i> (1996)<i> </i>mentioned that, “acidosis destroys bones because the body has to steal
alkalizing minerals from them to keep the blood pH from dropping into the acid
range.” Dr. Otto Heinrich Warburg won the 1931 Nobel Prize in Physiology for proving that cancer can’t survive in an alkaline, oxygen- rich environment, but thrives in an acidic, low-oxygen environment. Our health is directly related to the condition of our internal body
fluids. The condition of our internal bodily fluids is directly influenced by
the foods we eat and by our daily activities. Eat a diet that helps your body
maintain the correct acid-alkaline balance.<br />
<b style="text-align: center;"><i> Eat more alkaline foods and less
acidic foods</i></b><br />
<i style="text-align: center;"><b> Balance your pH for better health.</b></i></div>
</div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-27869643271779659092014-11-24T21:20:00.002-08:002015-02-02T03:13:01.801-08:00Edward de Bono's Lateral Thinking<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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The term ‘lateral thinking’ was coined in 1967 by Edward de
Bono, a Maltese psychologist, physician, and writer. Two of his most well known
concepts are <b>lateral thinking</b> (de
Bono 1977) and <b>the six thinking hats</b>
(de Bono 1999). ‘Lateral’ comes from the
Latin word <b><i>laterus</i></b> meaning ‘a side.’ The process of lateral thinking – <b>generation of novel solutions to problems</b>-
literally means sideways thinking. According
to de Bono (1990), information patterns are stable cognitive entities such as
concepts, ideas, thoughts and images, which exist in our minds and which
provide a perspective that directs information processing/thinking/problem
solving in a particular way. The concept of lateral thinking is insight
restructuring and this is brought about through the rearrangement of
information. Rearrangement is the basis of lateral thinking and rearrangement
means escape from the rigid patterns established by experience. Lateral
thinking is the type of thinking that aims to broaden the knowledge base
through the generation of new possibilities. Lateral thinking systematically forces
thinking towards insight, creativity and innovation. Lateral thinking is both
an attitude and a method of using information.</div>
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<b><u>Hypothesis of lateral
thinking</u></b></div>
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Lateral thinking is based on the hypothesis that the human
brain is a self-organizing information processor in which the output depends
upon both internal and external environment and on previous experience.
Thinking laterally deliberately disrupts the established cognitive patterns and
the information is processed differently. The outcome is the generation of a novel perspective which is often referred
to as an ‘aha’ moment.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><u>Definition</u></b></h3>
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The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines lateral thinking as
‘seeking to solve problems by unorthodox or apparently illogical methods’.
Lateral thinking, according to de Bono, “tries to restructure information
patterns by putting things together in a different way.” Lateral thinking is
‘out-of –the-box ‘non-linear thinking to be differentiated from logical,
extrapolative thinking. Lateral thinking is moving sideways and looking at
problems from multiple angles and perspectives.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><u>Principle of lateral
thinking</u></b></h3>
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To get a different perspective on a problem, try breaking
the elements up and recombining them in a different way (perhaps randomly).</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><u>Vertical and lateral
thinking</u></b></h3>
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Dr.de Bono divides thinking into two methods: vertical thinking
and lateral thinking. Vertical thinking involves the implementation and
utilization of already existent ideas (“digging the same hole deeper”) whereas
lateral thinking involves developing new ideas (“digging a hole somewhere
else”). According to de Bono, two processes necessary to stimulate lateral
thinking are ‘escape’ and ‘provocation.’ Escape consists of rejecting
assumptions and pre-formed concepts by shifting perspectives and provocation
consists primarily suspending judgement (Murray 1992). The formal ways to set
up provocations include escape, reversal, exaggeration, distortion and wishful
thinking. </div>
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<b>De Bono contrasted vertical to lateral thinking in the following ways:</b>
vertical thinking focuses on continuity; lateral thinking focuses on
discontinuity. Vertical thinking chooses, lateral thinking changes; Vertical
thinking is concerned with stability, lateral thinking is concerned with
instability; Vertical thinking searches for what is right, lateral thinking
searches for what is different; Vertical thinking is analytical, lateral
thinking is provocative; vertical thinking is concerned with where an idea came
from, lateral thinking is concerned with where the idea is going; vertical
thinking moves in the most likely directions, lateral thinking moves in the
least likely directions; vertical thinking develops an idea, lateral thinking
discovers the idea.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: justify;">
<b><u>Lateral thinking methods</u></b></h3>
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<b>Alternatives – </b>using concepts as a breeding ground for new ideas.</div>
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<b>Focus – </b>targeting thinking.</div>
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<b>Challenge –</b> breaking free from the limits of current assumptions.</div>
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<b>Random entry –</b> inserting unconnected input to open up new lines of
thinking.</div>
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<b>Provocation and movement –</b> generating illogical statements and
using them as stepping stones to usable new ideas.</div>
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<b>Harvesting –</b> capturing creative output. </div>
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<b>Treatment of ideas –</b> developing ideas and shaping them to fit an
organization or situation. </div>
<h3 style="text-align: justify;">
<b><u>Lateral thinking techniques</u></b></h3>
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<b>The reversing technique</b> involves examining a problem by turning it
completely around inside out, or upside down.</div>
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<b>The analogy technique</b> involves developing a statement about
similarities among objects, persons and situations.</div>
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<b>The cross-fertilization technique</b> involves asking experts from
other fields to view the problem and suggest methods for solving it from their
own areas of expertise.</div>
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<b>The mixing metaphors</b> involves using a metaphor to bring a new look
to a situation or problem.</div>
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<b>The random juxtaposition</b>
involves introducing a completely new notion to allow more ideas to be
generated.</div>
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<b><u>Critical factors related to lateral thinking</u></b></h3>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>Focus on dominant ideas that come to mind that polarize perception of a problem.<br />
2. Look at the multiple perspectives of the problem.<br />
3. Relax the logical thinking process.<br />
4. Allow ‘outside of the box’ ideas to come to mind and be considered even though they do not fit into the logical, scientific thinking pattern.</div>
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<b><u>Steps in lateral thinking process</u></b></h3>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>Escape from clichés and fixed patterns<br />
2. Challenges assumptions<br />
3. Generate alternatives<br />
4. Jump to new ideas and then see what happens.<br />
5. Find new entry points from which to move forward.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: justify;">
<b><u>Technique of six thinking hats (STH)</u></b></h3>
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This method uses six different
‘natures’ of thought, each represented by a different coloured ‘hat’(real or
imaginary). The hats are designed to foster ‘parallel thinking’ during group
problem –solving efforts. The same hat or way of thinking is adopted by all
group members, thus creating a shared focus. De Bono (1999) considered the hats
as <b>‘direction labels for thinking.’ <o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b>1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>White hat thinking –</b> information –based thinking – calls for facts and figures.<br />
<b>2. Red hat thinking –</b> emotional thinking – clarifies emotional reactions to issues.<br />
<b>3. Black hat thinking –</b> critical thinking – assesses the risk.<br />
<b>4. Yellow hat thinking</b> – positive or optimistic thinking – looks at the benefits. <br />
<b>5. Green hat thinking –</b> imaginative thinking – focuses on creative thinking.<br />
<b>6. Blue hat thinking –</b> thinking about thinking – manages thinking process.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: justify;">
<b><u>Benefits of lateral thinking</u></b></h3>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>Lateral thinking is essentially a problem-solving technique or useful habit of mind. Lateral thinking is searching for side entrances rather than using a front –door approach to resolving a problem. Lateral thinking causes a shift in thinking or perception; it completely breaks from previous thoughts or paradigms. <br />
2. Lateral thinking leads to innovation, which in turn, leads to realistic solutions. Think laterally helps to increase the range of options or more alternate ideas available and can often help to overcome tricky problems. Lateral thinking even turns problems into opportunities.<br />
3. Lateral thinking enhances the effectiveness of vertical thinking by challenging the arrogance and the cliché-pattern of thinking associated with logic. <br />
4. Lateral thinking develops an awareness of current ideas and practices; also aids in the development of new ideas.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<u>
Final thoughts</u></h3>
Lateral thinking is not generally a natural phenomenon. It
is a skill that can be developed through regular practice and with a
willingness to try something different. Vertical thinking is concerned with
digging the same hole deeper. Lateral thinking is concerned with digging the
hole somewhere else (Edward de Bono 1977). Lateral thinking generates ideas and
vertical thinking develops them (De Bono 1968). We are educated to be
analytical logical thinkers. Most of our thinking is analytical, convergent, critical
and left-brain thinking. There are many other ways of thinking or methods for
exploring multiple possibilities and approaches instead of pursuing a single
approach.<br />
<b><i>Think laterally and turn problems into opportunities</i></b></div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-73890349248690040252014-11-18T04:44:00.001-08:002015-01-26T23:06:55.170-08:00Health benefits of dietary prebiotics<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Prebiotics have been an integral part of normal human diet
for many centuaries. Prebiotics are essential specific colonic nutrients that
have the potential to considerably influence whole body’s physiology and
consequently health and wellbeing. Prebiotics affect specifically and
selectively the indigenous beneficial bacteria. Prebiotics are able to alter
the colonic microbiota toward a healthier composition by increasing for
example, numbers of saccharolytic species while reducing putrefactive
microorganisms. Some prebiotics are added to foods to improve food quality
characteristics such as mouth feel and other textural aspects. Prebiotics have
been used as low calorie fat replacers. Human milk can be considered as the
original prebiotic for gut microflora management in breast –fed infants. </div>
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<b>Definition</b></h3>
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Prebiotic is a non-digestible food ingredient which
beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulating the growth of and/ or
activating the metabolism of one (or more) health promoting bacteria in the
intestinal tract (Gibson and Roberfroid 1995).</div>
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A dietary probiotic is a selectively fermented ingredient
that allows specific changes, in the composition and/or activity of the
gastrointestinal microbiota, thus confers upon host wellbeing and health
(Gibson et al 2004).</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Prebiotic concept</b></h3>
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A prebiotic is a non-digestible food ingredient that
beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or
activity of one or a limited number of bacteria in the colon, and thus improves
host health. In order for s food ingredient to be classified as a prebiotic it
must </div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span>Be neither hydrolysed nor absorbed in the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract;<br />
2) Be a selective substrate for one or a limited number of beneficial bacteria commensal to the colon, which are stimulated to grow and/or are metabolically activated; <br />
3) Consequently, be able to alter the colonic flora in favour of a healthier composition and<br />
4) Induce luminal or systemic effects that are beneficial to the host health<span style="text-indent: -18pt;">.</span></div>
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<b>Synbiotics</b>
–probiotics may be used in conjunction with specific substrates (prebiotics)
for growth (e.g. a fructooligosaccharide in conjunction with a Bifidobacterial
strain or lactitol in conjunction with a lactobacillus organism). This
combination could improve the survival of the probiotic organism in the host
because its specific substrate is readily available for its fermentation.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Recognized prebiotics
</b></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
The common prebiotics in use include fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS), galcto-oligosacchardes (GOS),soy-oligosaccharides (SOS), inulins, lactulose and pyredextrins,. The majority of studies carried out to date have focused on inulin, FOS and GOS (Macfarlane et al 2008).</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Emergent prebiotics </b></h3>
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Emergent prebiotics include genti-oligosaccharides,gluco-oligosaccharides,
isomalto-oligosaccharides(IMO),lactosucrose, levans,
pectic-oligosaccharides,resistant starch, sugar alcohols and
xylo-oligisaccharides (XOS). </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Prebiotic mechanism
of action</b></h3>
1. Produce short chain fatty acids during fermentation of probiotic carbohydrates.<br />
2. Increase fecal weight and mildly reduce luminal colon pH.<br />
3. Stimulate the growth of carbohydrate fermenting bacteria.<br />
4. Lower the concentration putrefactive, toxic, mutagenic or genotoxic substances.<br />
5. Decrease the concentration of nitrogenous end-products and reductive enzymes.<br />
6. The Bifidobacteria and lactobacilli exhibit low b-glucuronidase and nitroreductase activity.<br />
7. Enhance immunity and modulate mucin production.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Prebiotic food
sources</b></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Fructooligosaccharide (FOS) is a naturally occurring prebiotic compound found in many edible sources such as artichokes, bananas, honey, onion, garlic, barley and others. Another prebiotic compound inulin is naturally found in chicory roots, wheat, onion, garlic, bananas, fruits and vegetables.Examples of food sources rich in prebiotics are whole grain, honey, banana, garlic,onion,tomato, leek, artichoke and chicory.</div>
<h3 style="margin-left: 0cm; text-align: left;">
<b>Prebiotic characteristics </b></h3>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i><b>1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Non-digestible or partially digestible</b></i></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i><b>2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Non-absorbable in the small intestine</b></i></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i><b>3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Well fermented by beneficial bacteria in the gut
and </b></i></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i><b>4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Selective stimulation of growth and activity of
intestinal bacteria.</b></i></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Metabolic fate of
prebiotics</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Inulin and oligofructose are not hydrolysed in the mouth,
stomach and small intestine. In the large intestine, they undergo complete
anaerobic fermentation by bacteria. They do not contribute any calories. They
are completely fermented in the colon, so inulin is not excreted in the stool.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Prebiotics and
dietary fibres</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Prebiotics and dietary fibres are not digested by human
digestive enzymes, but prebiotics are fermented selectively in the colon and
exert their health effects via colonic microbiota. Dietary fibre on the other
hand may not be fermented at all and exert health effects in other ways for
example improved bowel function.<br />
<br />
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</div>
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<br /></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Colonic microbial
system </b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The colonic microbial system consists of wide range of
bacterial species, a variety of different metabolic niches, bacterial habitats
and interrelationships. In general intestinal bacteria may be divided into
species that exert either harmful or beneficial effects on the host. Pathogenic
or harmful effects include diarrhea, infections, liver damage, carcinogenesis
and intestinal putrefaction; health promoting effects may be caused by the
inhibition of growth of harmful bacteria, stimulation of immune functions,
lowering of gas distension problems, improved digestion and absorption of
essential nutrients and synthesis of vitamins. </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Health promoting
functions of Bifidobacteria</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bifidobacterium is a major group of saccharolytic bacteria
in the colon and constitutes up to 25% of the total population in the gut of
adult and 95% in the new borns (Kawerze et al 1981). Bifidobacteria produce
strong acids as metabolic end products (acetate, lactate), lower the pH and may
exert an antibacterial effect. Bifidobacteria produce vitamins largely of the B
– group. Bifidobacteria produce certain immunomodulators, which promote
immunological attack on malignant cells. Bifidobacteria have been used to
restore the normal intestinal flora during antibiotic therapy (Korshunov et al
1985). </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Health benefits of dietary prebiotics </b></h3>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Increase the absorption of dietary minerals such
as calcium, magnesium and iron.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Reduce the risk of colon cancer.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Reduce cholesterol and blood lipids.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Prevent gastrointestinal tract infections.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Increase growth of Bifidobacteria, which has
following beneficial effects:</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level3 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i>i)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->produces nutrients such as B-group vitamins and
folic acid.</i></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level3 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i>ii)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Produces digestive enzymes.</i></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level3 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i>iii)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Reduces food intolerance by utilizing residual
nutrients from the upper gut.</i></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level3 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i>iv)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Improves nutrient management.</i></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level3 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i>v)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Reduces liver toxins i.e. blood amines and
ammonia, by using them as fuels.</i></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level3 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i>vi)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Competitive elimination of pathogenic
microorganisms.</i></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Summary</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients. They are
selectively fermented by intestinal bacteria ( e.g. lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria).
Potential health benefits of prebiotics include increased bioavailability of
dietary minerals and reduced risks of various diseases such as cancer,
intestinal infections, cardiovascular disorders, obesity and diabetes. Prebiotics
are naturally available in several foods such as whole grains, onion, garlic,
bananas, fruits and vegetables.<br />
<b><i>Prebiotics are effective for gut health</i></b></div>
</div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-87263362677901034362014-10-30T08:39:00.003-07:002015-01-04T04:29:14.010-08:00Health benefits of dietary probiotics<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Probiotics are live microorganisms that could confer health
benefits on the host, when consumed in significant amounts. The term prebiotic
literally means ‘for life’ Probiotics have been proven to promote
gastrointestinal health and immune function. The <b>normal human gut flora</b> contains 300-1000
different kinds of bacterial species with about 10<sup>14 </sup>individual
bacteria. The predominant inhabitants of human gut include <i>Lactobacillus </i>and <i>Bifidobacterium.</i><br />
<i><br /></i>
<br />
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<i><br /></i>
<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Definition </b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The World Health
Organization (WHO) defines probiotics as “live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer
a health benefit on the host.”(FAO/WHO, 2001). The term probiotics was coined
by the researchers Lilly and Stilwell in their studies in 1965. In 1989, Fuller
popularized the term ‘probiotics.’ Dr. Elie Metchnikoff came upon the discovery
of the ‘prolongation of life’ through probiotics. He was the first scientist who proposed the therapeutic use of lactic acid bacteria.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Normal intestinal micro
flora</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Normal intestinal micro flora is largest reservoir of microorganisms
mutual to humans. This complex micro ecosystem remains relatively stable in
normal health at a given age ( in other words it varies significantly as a function
of age). This normal flora colonizes shortly after birth. This micro flora
includes high numbers and variety of intestinal bacteria, estimated at 1,013 in
the colon and around 400-500 bacterial/fungal species. The intestinal flora
comprises 10 times more bacteria than the body cells. The highest number and
complexity of bacteria is found in the terminal ileum and colon. The intestinal
flora play a significant role in the development of the immune system and in
the resistance of infection by pathogens. </div>
</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Probiotic hypothesis</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The concept behind probiotics is to enhance good bacteria
and discourage bad bacteria in the human gastrointestinal tract. Probiotics
help to keep bad bacteria away and out of one’s body. Probiotics help to
‘balance the intestinal bacteria i.e. ensure that there are more ‘good’
bacteria than ‘bad’. The ‘good’ bacteria simply ‘crowd out’ disease causing
microorganisms, thereby preventing attachment of pathogenic bacteria by a
process known as <b>“competitive exclusion”</b>
(Kailasapathy and Chin 2000). Human gastrointestinal tract is supposed to
contain 85% “good” bacteria and 15% “bad” bacteria.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Characteristics of
probiotics</b></h3>
1. Probiotics neither are enzymes, vitamins or minerals nor foreign substances or chemical compounds. <b>Natural probiotics</b> are microorganisms that reside in the ileum (small intestine) and in the colon (large intestine) which have a <b>symbiotic relationship</b> with humans.<br />
2. The most <b>popular probiotic genuses</b> are Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria. Lactobacilli love to live in the small intestine and Bifidobacteria love to live in the colon.<br />
3. Probiotics can resist the effects of digestive enzymes, stomach acid and bile. Probiotics support the intestinal microflora against antagonizing microorganisms. <b>Probiotics promote optimal digestion</b> and absorption of nutrients and promote a healthy digestive tract.<br />
4. Probiotics can assist the gastrointestinal tract to absorb minerals, vitamins and other necessary nutrients and the functions of the immune system. They also exert positive actions at the metabolic level.<br />
5. Probiotics work simultaneously, synergistically and symbiotically with other agents.<br />
6. Probiotics can be used in paediatric medicine for babies and young children. Probiotics are acknowledged by the World Health Organization for the benefits of improving gastrointestinal health.<br />
7. Probiotics never lose their beneficial properties during storage.<br />
8. Probiotics are grown, fermented and cultivated from various media such as dairy, vegetables, beans, beets and others.<br />
9.Manufactured probiotics are controlled bacteria (i.e., friendly, healthy, beneficial bacteria) that are manufactured in controlled laboratory environments.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Probiotic organisms</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Members referred to as probiotics are bacteria and fungi,
most commonly including species of <i>Lactobacillus</i>
and <i>Bifidobacterium </i>and species of
the yeast genus <i>Saccharomyces.</i> Other bacterial genera which feature
prebiotic strains include <i>Streptococcus, Enterococcus </i>and<i> Bacillus.</i>The members of <i>Lactobacillus</i> and <i>Bifidobacterium</i> have long history of use and generally recognized
as safe (Generally Regarded As Safe,GRAS status).<br />
<i>Lactobacilli </i>which has the ability to produce lactic acid , is classified
as Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB). Probiotic species in the <i>Lactobacilli</i> family found in the human body include <i>L.reuteri, L. casei, </i>and<i> L.rhamnosus</i>. <i>Lactobacilli acidopilus</i> is commonly found in yogurt products. <i>Bifidobacteria</i> are norman inhabitants of
the human colon. <i>Bifidobacteria</i> can
produce lactic and acetic acids and also grouped as Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB).
Probiotic species in the Bifidobacteria include <i>B.lactis, B. bifidum </i>and<i>
B.longum. Streptococci </i>are also found in dairy products.<br />
<i>Streptococci thermophilus</i> is commonly
used to make yogurt. <i>Enterococcus</i> is
a lactic acid – producing bacteria. Two species are commonly found in the
intestines of humans: <i>E. faecalis</i> (90-95%)
and <i>E.faecium</i> (5-10%). <i>Lactococcus</i> is classified as LAB as the
can produce lactic acid.<i>Lactococcus
lactis</i> is found in dairy products and is commonly responsible for the
souring of milk. The name of the probiotic yeast <i>Saccharomyces</i> is from the Latin meaning ‘sugar fungi.’ <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> is used in
making wine, bread and beer. <i>Saccharomyces
cerevisiae</i> is more commonly known as Baker’s yeast.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><b>Probiotic bacteria
used in foods for human consumption are generally of human origin and are
non-pathogenic. In addition they retain significant viability during processing
and transit through the gut. </b></i><br />
<i><b><br /></b></i>
<br />
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</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Probiotic foods</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Yogurt is a probiotic
containing food. Yogurt has been used in
the past to treat diarrhea, prevent urinary tract infections or treat recurrent
yeast infections. Probiotic containing foods include aged cheese. Kefir,
kimchi, sauerkraut, miso, tempeh, and
some soy beverages. Probiotic commercial products include tomato juice, peanut
milk, soymilk, buffalo whey/soy milk and
rice. Probiotics are normally added to foods as a part of the fermentation
process. The probiotics involved in food fermentation are mainly Lactobacillus
and Bifidobacterium. Probiotic bacteria may also be available in capsules or as
powder.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Mechanism of action
of probiotics</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Probiotics deliver active constituents to targets in the
host gastrointestinal tract. These active constituents include mainly enzymes,
and immunomodulatory and antimicrobial components. Probiotic bacteria promotes
human health in any of the following mechanism(s): adherence to intestinal
mucosa and mucus, production of antimicrobial substances, antagonism against
pathogens, competition for adhesion sites (competitive exclsion), interaction
with Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (GALT), immune regulation, in-activation of
harmful components within the intestinal
contents (binding of toxins), regulation of metabolic activity of intestinal
microflora and overall normalization of the intestinal microflora ( Salminen et
al 1996, Brassart and Sciffrin 1997).<br />
<br />
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</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Health benefits of
probiotics</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Medical literature supports the use of probiotics for treating
a variety of different diseases – ranging from food allergies to ezema; from
Crohn’s disease to antibiotic-associated diarrhea. The well documented health benefits
of probiotics include the improvement of gastrointestinal health. Probiotics have
been documented about <b>the balancing effects on the immune system</b> or enhancing
body’s overall resistance to infection. Probiotics
are useful in the prevention or treatment of several gastrointestinal disorders
such as infectious diarrhea, antibiotic diarrhea and traveller’s diarrhea. <b>Probiotic
therapy</b> can be helpful for people with Crohn’s disease and irritable bowel
syndrome (IBS) (ref; Nutrition in Clinical Practice).<br />
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<br />
<b>Probiotics may be beneficial
for brain function.</b> Probiotic bacteria may have the potential to change brain
neurochemistry and treat anxiety and depression – related disorders (ref:
PNAS). Consumption of a formulation of <i>Lactobacillus
reuteri</i> NC IMB 30242, is able to reduce blood levels of LDL cholesterol
(ref: The American Heart Association Scientific Sessions, 2012). Consumption of
<i>Bifidobacterium infantis</i> 35624, may
have benefits for patients with psoriasis and chronic fatigue syndrome.
Probiotics can be used to re-establish healthy vaginal flora and prevent
bacterial vaginosis (BV). Probiotics can be used – along with other natural
therapies – to treat urinary tract infection(UTI) and yeast infection.<br />
Finish
researchers reported that large amounts of live Lactobacilli consumed daily may
have positive effects on<b> rheumatoid arthritis </b>and ankylosing spondylitis.
Benefits have also been shown in skin problems such as eczema and psoriasis.
Probiotics may be considered a valid alternative to conventional therapy for
alcoholic cirrhosis. Consumption of <i>Lactobacillus rhamnosus</i> and <i>Bifidobacterium lactis</i> reduced the risk
of colon cancer.<br />
<b><i> Probiotics offer immunity and digestive health</i></b><br />
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</div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-2844619754044301032014-10-16T03:24:00.000-07:002015-01-17T20:50:17.097-08:00Practical applications of Pareto Principle<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
A strange economic principle first outlined by an Italian
Professor <b>Vilfredo Pareto </b>(1848-1923) discovered an imbalance in the
distribution of wealth and income in nineteenth century England. Vilfredo
Pareto is widely known for his<b> law of income distribution.</b> In the 1860s, he
found that the majority of the wealth and income went to a minority of people.
In percentage terms 80 percent of the income and wealth went to 20 percent of
the population.<br />
The Pareto rule is the observation that if you divide the world
into causes and results, relatively few causes (roughly 20 percent) nearly
always lead to most of the results (roughly 80 percent). It is the observation
that a small number of events give rise to the majority effects. Most
consequences come from few causes. The great majority of outputs come from a
small minority of inputs. In an industrial world, Pareto’s rule was found to
apply in an increasing number of situations. Pareto’s rule is a fact of life in
the world of selling and sales force management: 80 percent of sales are made
by 20 percent of the sales force. Project managers know that 20 percent of the
work (the first 10 percent and last 10 percent) consume 80 percent of one’s
time and resources. The value of the Pareto principle for a manager is that it
reminds one to focus on the 20 percent that matters.</div>
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Pareto’s principle, 80/20 rule should serve as a daily
reminder to focus 80 percent of one’s time and energy on the 20 percent of
one’s work that is really important. Moreover many researchers have confirmed
that the rule applies to many other phenomena, including the distribution of
measured defects. For instance, it has been found that 80 percent of the
observed defects on a product or in a process can be attributed to 20 percent
of the possible causes. The 80/20 principle asserts that 20 percent of
products, customers or employees are really responsible for about 80 percent of
profits. Living the 80/20 way enables anyone to get extraordinary results
without extraordinary efforts. In a way this leads to the idea of <b>achievement islands which means that the
small time periods when you are in your most productive or creative.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i> A small
amounts of our energy – leads to – most great things in our lives.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i> A small portion
of our time- leads to- most of our happiness and <o:p></o:p>fulfillment</i></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Definition </h3>
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Pareto’s rule states that a small number of causes are
responsible for a large percentage of the effect, in a ratio of about 20:80.
This means that for many phenomena, 20 percent invested inputs are responsible
for 80 percent of the results obtained. In another words 80 percent
consequences originate from 20 percent of the causes. The 80/20 rule means that
a few (20 percent) are vital and many (80 percent) are trivial. <b>Dr. Joseph M.
Juran </b>called Pareto principle as the ‘vital few and trivial many.’ Joseph Juran
popularized the Pareto principle in the 1950s by showing that it can be applied
to a variety of situations, especially quality problems. The rule is also
called <b>‘the law of the vital few’</b> or <b>the principle of factor sparsity.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
For example IBM found that, on average, 80 percent of the
run time of a software application is due to only 20 percent of the lines of
code. This realization helped them streamline the most important lines of code
and speed up their applications by working on the lines of code that were 16
times (20 %) as important. According to factor 16, the individuals in the 20-
percent group are 16 times as important as those in the 80- percent group.<i> </i></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Pareto analysis</h3>
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Pareto charts are one tool we can use to help us be more
effective in tracking down the sources of problems and focusing our efforts
where they will have the biggest effect. This is known as pinpointing or
localizing, a problem. Pareto charts break a big problem into its parts and
identify which parts are most important. A Pareto chart is a special kind of
bar chart where each bar represents a different category or part of a problem.
The tallest bars on the chart represent that parts that contribute the most to
the problem. By focusing our efforts on the tall bars, we can usually get the
most from limited resources and maximize our gains. That is because usually it
takes just as much effort to cut the tallest bar in half as it does to cut the
smallest bar in half.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Pareto thinking </h3>
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The 80/20 rule asserts that approximately 80 percent of the
effects generated by any large system are caused by 20 percent of the variables
in that system. The 80 percent of a product’s usage involves 20 percent of its
features. In a city’s traffic control system, 80 percent of a city’s traffic is
on 20 percent of its roads. The 80 percent of your website traffic comes 20
percent of your pages. The 80 percent of a company’s revenue comes from 20
percent of its products. In a company or industry, 80 percent of innovation
comes from 20 percent of the people. The 80 percent of your success comes from
20 percent of your efforts. The 80 percent of your problems are a result
of the same 20 percent of your issues. In
machinery, 80 percent of errors are caused by 20 percent of the components. In
an organization, 80 percent of its progress comes 20 percent of the effort. Out
of 100 % of the people, 20 percent are making 80 percent of the difference. The
other 80 percent make 20 percent of the difference. Top 20s have a better way
of thinking, learning and communicating. The 80 percent of our happiness or
success is tied to the 20 percent of the inside world. The 80 percent of the
profits in an endeavour will be derived from 20 percent of the segments (or
client groups). In general 20 percent of your clients yield 80 percent of your
profits. Below 20 percent of your total number of friends
contribute the great majority of happiness and meaning to life. In summary, a
small number of events give rise to the majority of effects. Most consequences
come from few causes.<br />
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</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Practical applications </h3>
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<b>Personal productivity </b>– The 80 percent of one’s time is
spent on the trivial many activities. But in order to improve your
productivity, you concentrate on the vital 20 percent. The key is to identify
those vial few activities, actions, products or programs.</div>
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<b>Costs </b>– to reduce costs, identify which 20 percent are using
80 percent of the resources.</div>
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<b>Customer profitability</b> – In most successful companies, some
customers can be more profitable than others. Many companies struggle to
measure the profitability of customers, distributors or agents. If they use
80-20 strategy, such companies can definitely profit from their customer
portfolio.<br />
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<b><i> </i></b><b><i>‘Critical few and trivial many’</i></b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><i> Achieve more with less<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-4395310244327261582014-10-14T03:28:00.003-07:002014-12-08T22:09:36.566-08:00Health benefits of dietary phytoestrogens<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Phytoestrogens are non-steroidal plant – derived phytochemicals
with estrogenic activity. The common biological roles of phytoestrogens are to
protect plants from stress or to act as part of a plant’s defense mechanisms. The
name ‘phyto’ means plant and ‘estrogen’ comes from <i>estrus</i> (period of fertility for female mammals). All phytoestrogens are diphenolic compounds
with chemical structures similar to natural estrogens and antiestrogens. Phytoestrogens
are made up of more than 20 compounds and can occur in more than 300 plants
such as fruits, herbs and grains. Three major subclasses of phytoestrogens have
been identified and chemically defined as<b> Isoflavones, lignans and coumestans.</b> The
best studied dietary phytoestrogens are the soy Isoflavones and the flaxseed
lignans. Phytoestrogens cannot be stored in the body and can be easily broken
down and eliminated. Dietary phytoestrogens have weaker estrogenic effects than
human estrogens. Human clinical trials suggest that phytoestrogens may potentially
confer health benefits related to cardiovascular diseases, cancer, osteoporosis
and menopausal symptoms.</div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>The soy hypothesis</b></h3>
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Historically, Asian countries have had low incidence rates
of breast cancer compared to Western countries. Soy, a dietary staple in many
Asian countries may protect women against breast cancer. Anticancer effects of
soy Isoflavones may be attributable to their structural and functional
similarities to estrogens. Epidemiologic
studies in Asian and Asian-American populations support the hypothesis that
early exposure to dietary soy may decrease breast cancer risk, while exposure
in adulthood may not be positive. A regular intake of soy foods appear to be
protective. This is evidenced by Japan, for example only 25% of menopausal
women suffer hormone withdrawal symptoms as compared with 85% of women in the
U.S (Notelovitz 1989). In menopausal women, dietary phytoestrogens can help
compensate for the hormone deficits and thereby moderate the hormonal
withdrawal symptoms.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Phytoestrogens – a
definition</b></h3>
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Phytoestrogens are defined as “any plant substance or
metabolite the induces biological responses in vertebrates and can mimic or
modulate the actions of endogenous estrogens usually binding to estrogen
receptors” (MAFF UK, 2003).</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Estrogenic potential
of phytoestrogens</b></h3>
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Phytoestrogens have biochemical structures similar to those
of mammalian sex hormone estrogen. The estrogenic activity of phytoestrogens
has been related to their ability to bind to the mammalian estrogen receptor
(ER). The phytoestrogens such as genistein and coumestrol were shown to have
higher binding affinities to estrogen receptor(ER). Dietary phytoestrogens have
weaker binding affinities when compared with the female endogenous estrogen
β-estradiol. Isoflavones are best researched and most common form of
phytoestrogens. </div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Dietary sources</b></h3>
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The main dietary source of Isoflavones (e.g. genistein and
daidzein) for humans is soybean, while
flavonoids (e.g. apigenin, naringenin and luteolin) are found in several
different vegetables, fruits, berries, herbs and green tea. The soy foods
contain approximately 0.2 – 1.6 mg of Isoflavones/ g dry weight. For Coumestans( e.g. coumestrol), the main
sources are sprouts of alfalfa and various beans. Lignans (e.g.entrolactone and
enterodiol ) are not present in our diets as such, but precursors are converted
to lignans by the gut microflora. Lignan precursors are present in fibre- rich
foods such as flaxseed, unrefined grain products particularly rye and some
berries. Flax seeds are one of the best sources for lignans. Dietary intake of
phytoestrogens is greater in vegetarians than in non-vegetarians. Asians,
Japanese, Koreans and Chinese consume more phytoestrogens than the people of
Western countries including Americans. It is estimated that dietary phytoestrogen
intake is up to 30 times higher in Eastern Asia than in Europe and North
America.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Dietary reference
intakes</b></h3>
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The total phytoestrogen consumption in Eastern population or
in adults taking phytoestrogen supplements may be approximately 60 to 75
mg/day. Therefore an average 60-75 kg adult would consume approximately 1 mg
phytoestrogens per kg body weight (bw). Many Asian populations that exhibit low
incidence of prostate and breast cancers consume 20 and 80 mg/day of the
isoflavone genistein mainly from soy foods. The mean daily isoflavone intake in
Asian populations has been estimated to approximately 30 mg/day. It has been
recommended that dietary phytoestrogens sources containing 30 to 120 mg of
Isoflavones can be given daily for relief of post menopausal symptoms. The
dietary intake of phytoestrogens can affect the menstrual cycle and the
concentration of reproductive hormones in the blood of premenopausal women. In
1999, the <b>U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)</b> approved the health claim
that a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol that include 25g of soyprotein
per day reduce the risk of heart disease. A meta-analysis study concluded that
an intake of an average of 47g soyprotein / day lowered total cholesterol and
LDL- cholesterol. This was supported by studies in the monkey indicating that
isoflavone increased HDL-cholesterol, enhanced vasodilation and decreased
atherosclerosis.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Therapeutic
properties</b></h3>
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Several health effects have been hypothesized for
phytoestrogens: they can be estrogenic or antiestrogenic, antioxidative, antiproliferative,
antiviral, antibacterial, insecticidal or fungistatic, cardioprotective,
antiatherogenic, hypocholesterolemic, bone maintaining, cancer protective and
anticarcinogenic (Branca F and Lorenzetti S, 2005). Phytoestrogen such as
<b>genistein</b> affect the blood vessel wall to inhibit atherosclerosis by binding to
hormone receptors. Phytoestrogens exert a cardiovascular protective effect by
regulating blood lipid levels. <b>Isoflavones</b> and other phytoestrogens have been
considered to exert anticarcinogenic actions mainly through antiestrogenic,
antiaromatase or antiprolifertive mechanisms. Isoflavones can have a beneficial
effect on balancing male hormones and the risk of prostate cancer. Dietary soy supplementation
has been shown to increase bone mineral density. Sufficient dietary intake of
soyprotein relieves hot flashes in post- menopausal women. The lignan phytoestrogens
provide the building blocks of cell walls in plants and in humans. Lignans have
the ability to inhibit fungus growth and kill various bacteria and viruses.<br />
<br />
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<b><i> Soy estrogens (isoflavonoids) play beneficial role in menopausal health<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
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bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-26179733351100242512014-10-11T01:35:00.001-07:002014-12-09T02:46:44.342-08:00Health benefits of dietary phytosterols<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Phytosterols are steroid alcohols (triterpenes). Phytosterols
(plant sterols and stanols, saturated form of the sterol) are chemically like
cholesterol molecules. Phytosterols are related to cyclopentaphenanthrene with
four condensed rings of 28 or 29 carbons. Phytosterols present a diverse group
of more than 200 different compounds found in various plant and marine
materials. They are essential structural components of the plant cells and
membranes. Phytosterols regulate membrane fluidity of plant cells. Sitosterol,
campesterol and stigmosterol are the most abundant phytosterols in plants. Stanols
such as sitostanol, and campestanol are saturated plant sterols. Phytosterols
can be converted into phytostanols by chemical hydrogenation. Phytosterols are
not synthesized by the body and an estimated 200-300 mg phytosterol is obtained
daily from the diet. In humans, intestinal absorption of Phytosterols is low
(0-10%) compared to the >40% for cholesterol. The phytosterols and stanols are
naturally occur in a variety of foods such as nuts, vegetable oils, seeds and
cereals. The prime function of phytosterols is to inhibit the intestinal
absorption of cholesterol. Human body uses the Phytosterols to produce the
hormones it needs. Phytosterols are not synthesized in human body, are poorly
absorbed and are excreted faster from the liver than cholesterol.</div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Definitions</b></h3>
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Phytosterols encompass plant sterols and stanols, are
steroid compounds similar to cholesterol which occur in plants and vary only in
carbon side chains and/or presence or absence of a double bond. Stanols are
saturated sterols, having no double bonds in the sterol ring structure
(Wickipedia.org).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Phytosterols are plant –derived compounds that are structurally
similar to cholesterol. The compounds may lower blood cholesterol levels,
particularly LDL cholesterol and may have uses as immunostimulants and in treating
benign prostate enlargement.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Phytosterols and
cholesterol</b></h3>
1. Phytosterols are not synthesized in the human body.<br />
2. Phytosterols have their intestinal absorption much lower than that of cholesterol and<br />
3. Large doses of Phytosterols in diet diminish the absorption of cholesterol.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Mechanism of action
of phytosterols</b></h3>
Cholesterol absorption is a very important physiological
mechanism that regulates cholesterol metabolism. Phytosterols have been shown
to inhibit the uptake of both dietary and endogenously produced (biliary)
cholesterol from intestinal cells. Such inhibition results in a decrease in
serum total and LDL-cholesterol levels. Levels of HDL – cholesterol and
triglycerides do not appear to be affected by dietary phytosterol consumption
(AbuMweis et al 2008).<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Food sources </b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Plant sterols are found in all foods of plant origin. Foods
rich in phytosterols include unrefined vegetable oils, whole grains, nuts and
legumes. The main sources of Phytosterols are vegetable oils, vegetable fat
spreads and margarines, cereals and cereal products (bread) and vegetables.
These sources contribute to 50-80% of the total phytosterol intake (Klingberg
et al 2008,Valsta et al 2004). The fruits contain about 12% of phytosterol. The
content of phytosterols in most vegetable oils ranges from 1.0 to 5.0 mg/g of
oil. Wheat germ oil contains 17-26 mg/g of phytosterols. Lower amounts of
phytosterols are found in palm oil (0.7 – 0.8 mg/g ), coconut oil (0.7 -0.8mg/g
), and olive oil (1.4 – 1.9 mg/g ). The phytosterol content in Finland rye,
wheat, barley and oat are 1.0, 0.7,0.8 and 0.4 mg/g respectively.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Health promoting
properties</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The most important function of phytosterols is their plasma
cholesterol –lowering effect through inhibition of intestinal cholesterol
absorption and enhanced elimination of cholesterol in stools. Maximum
cholesterol – lowering benefit is achieved at doses of 2-3 g/day (Hallikainen
et al 2000, Jones et al 2000, Maki et al 2001). Several recent studies indicate
that the consumption of 2g/day of sterols or stanols could result in a
reduction in the risk of heart diseases by about 25% (Law 2000, Jones and
Raeini – Sarjaz 2001, Hicks and Moreau 2001). The potential health effects of phytosterols
include the prevention of inflammation caused by rheumatoid arthritis, control
of blood sugar in diabetes, the reduction of the risk of various types of
cancers and the prevention of inflammation caused by atheroscelerosis. Phytosterols
protect against colon cancer by slowing down the reproduction of cells in the
large intestine. The phytosterols have
been shown to effectively reduce prostatic hyperplasia (Berges et al 1995,
Berges, Kassen and Senge 2000) and colon cancer (Bouie and Lamprecht 1999). The
phytosterols have limited antioxidant activity.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Recommended dietary
intakes</b></h3>
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Dietary phytosterol intakes have been estimated to range
approximately 150 mg/day to 450 mg/day in various populations. Early human
diets were rich in phytosterols providing as much as 1 g/day. On average, most
Americans get between 2 and 4 mg/day of the phytosterols. Natural health practitioners
believe that we actually need to consume between 30 and 50 mg/day of
phytosterols. <b>The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) </b>recommended an
amount of 800 mg of phytosterol per day on a consistent basis for increased
health benefits. Typical consumption of
plant sterols in the diet is approximately 200-400 mg/day (Aparna Kuna et al
2011).</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Functional use of dietary phytosterols </b></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Phytosterols and phytostanols in free or esterified form are added to foods for their properties to reduce absorption of cholesterol in the gut and thereby lower blood cholesterol levels. Phytosterols are currently added as an esterified form to wide range of food products such as margarines, yoghurts, salad dressings, milk and snack bars. <b>Phytosterol and phytostanol esters</b> are used as a fat replacer in margarines and spreads. These esters can provide a crispy texture (prevents sogginess) to cereal products by coating the product surface. Both phytosterol and phytostanol esters give an enhanced creamy texture to low fat dairy products (yoghurt / drinking yoghurt). They may also improve the taste of food products by masking bitterness and hence reduce the amount of sugar or sweetener required to obtain a pleasant taste and mouth feel (e.g. soy drinks).The phytostanol and phytosterol esters are microbiologically inert during the fermentation process used to produce yoghurt. The phytostanol and phytosterol esters added to various food products show excellent stability at different pH levels during long term storage (upto one year). The phytostanol and phytosterol esters are also stable in milk and fermented milk products with viable bacteria like yoghurts and yoghurt drinks.<br />
<b><i> </i></b><b><i>Dietary intake of phytosterols lowers the absorption of cholesterol</i></b></div>
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bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-77516995007050642842014-10-07T10:05:00.000-07:002015-01-26T23:10:53.125-08:00Health benefits of food enzymes<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Enzymes are natural catalytic proteins that speed up biochemical reactions by lowering the activation energy. All plants and animals produce enzymes. All vital processes in human body are dependent on enzymes. Enzymes aid in the digestion of food and are essential for all metabolic activity in the body. Each organ has its own set of enzymes. Enzymes vary in different individuals, depending on genetics and life style. More than <b>3000</b> different enzymes have been identified in the body.<br />
<b>Kinds of Human enzymes</b><br />
In humans enzymes can be categorized into 3 classes: <b>metabolic enzymes, digestive enzymes and food enzymes. </b>Metabolic enzymes catalyse many different biochemical reactions that take place in the body’s cell and tissues. Metabolic enzymes are involved in the processes of energy production, synthesis and repair of cell structures and replication of genetic material. Digestive enzymes are secreted along the gastrointestinal tract, help break down macronutrients such as protein, fats and carbohydrates found in our diet and enable absorption of nutrients into the blood stream. Humans secrete about <b>24 </b>different digestive enzymes depending on the type of foods eaten. Digestive enzymes fit into 3 primary categories: <b>proteases</b> digest proteins, <b>amylases </b>digest carbohydrates and <b>lipases</b> digest fats.<br />
<b>Food enzymes</b><br />
Food enzymes are introduced to the body through the raw foods we eat and through consumption of supplemental enzyme products. Food enzymes are vital helpers to predigest food and aid greatly in the absorption of nutrients. Food enzymes include digestive enzymes but also enzymes unique to particular foods. Food enzymes of particular food cannot be stored in the body for later use. The three major food enzymes are: amylase, which breaks down starches into sugars; lipase, which breaks down fats into fatty acids and protease, which breaks down proteins into amino acids. Fresh raw foods are capable of self –digestion by its own self-contained enzymes. The cooking and processing of natural foods destroys all of its enzymes.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Definition of enzyme</h3>
Dixon and Webb (1979) defines an enzyme as a “protein with catalytic properties due to its power of specific activation.” Enzymes are protein catalysts that increase the velocity of a chemical reaction and are not consumed during the reaction they catalyse. <br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
The food enzyme concept</h3>
When ingested, the enzymes in raw food or supplementary enzymes result in a significant degree of digestion, thus lowering the drain on the organism’s own enzyme potential. <br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
The law of adaptive secretion of digestive enzymes </h3>
This law states that the organism values its enzymes highly and will make no more than are needed for the job. If enzymes in the food digest some of the food, the body will make less concentrated enzymes. <br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
The concept of food enzyme stomach </h3>
The human stomach consists of two physiologically distinct parts: the upper cardiac region(the fore-enzyme stomach) and the lower pyloric region. The peptic digestion of protein takes place in the lower part of the stomach whereas the upper portion is where food enzymes in raw foods predigest food material. According to the food enzyme concept of Dr. Edward Howell, the duration of life varies inversely with the intensity of metabolism. In other words the length of life is inversely proportional to the rate of exhaustion of the enzyme potential. <br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Food enzyme hypotheses</h3>
1. Raw foods contain enough food enzymes for that particular food.<br />
2. Enzymes in raw foods are destroyed with cooking, radiation and processing of food(critical temperature above, wet heat 47 degree Celsius / 118 degree Farenheit)<br />
3. Food enzymes are reduced by long-term storage, shipping and treatment with organic chemicals and toxins.<br />
4. Eating cooked foods deplete the body’s limited enzyme capacity.<br />
5. Modern processes of pasteurization, canning, baking, drying, freezing and microwaving are particularly harmful to the enzymes in food.<br />
6. The enzyme shortage in processed foods may be the direct cause of shortened lifespan, inferior health of the organs and chronic illnesses.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Enzyme-friendly foods</b></h3>
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Enzyme research has revealed the importance of raw foods in
the diet. The enzymes in raw foods help start the process of digestion and
reduce the body’s need to produce digestive enzymes. Plant based enzymes are
the most popular choice of enzymes. The plant based proteases are papain from
the papaya, ficin from the fig tree and bromelain from the pineapple. <b>Grains
</b>are naturally endowed with amylase, and some protease and lipase. Raw honey has
considerable amounts of amylase. Sprouted foods (seeds, grains and legumes) are
one of the best sources of living enzymes. Bovine milk contains 35+ different
known enzymes most of which are destroyed by pasteurization. <b>Fermented foods</b> (e.g.,
miso, kabitofu, Toyu, Natto, Tempeh, masato, malakachisu, tofu, certain soybean
products such as soy sauce) are loaded with enzymes. Some fruits that contain
lots of enzymes include avocados, papayas, pineapples, bananas, kiwi, figs,
grapes and mangos. Grains, nuts, legumes and seeds are rich in enzymes as well
as other nutrients, but also contain enzyme inhibitors. Unless deactivated,
these enzyme inhibitors can put an even
greater strain on the digestive system than cooked foods. <br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Enzyme – specific foods</b></h3>
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<b>Papayas</b> contain large amounts of proteolytic enzyme
(protease) called papain. Papain is known to alleviate the inflammation and
pain.When digestion is poor, many people use papaya, which is actually a
digestant. <b>Pineapples</b> also contain proteolytic enzyme called bromelain, which
helps to dissolve antigens that are responsible for allergies and inflammation.
Protease enzymes help with food allergies or intolerances to animal protein.
<b>Apples </b>contain a number of enzymes including ascorbates oxidase, beta
galactosidase, catechol oxidase, pectase, pectin methyl esterase, peroxidase,
polygalactouronase, polyphenol oxidase and superoxide dismutase (SOD). <b>Apricots</b>
contain amylase, invertase, polyphenol oxidase, and other enzymes. <b>Avocados</b>
contain amylase, cellulose, lipase and other enzymes. <b>Green beans</b> contain
amylase, lipoxygenase, peroxidase and SOD. <b>Broccoli</b> contains amylase, casein,
kinase and SOD. <b>Cabbage</b> contains allene oxidase, cyclise, amylase and other enzymes.
<b>Cherries</b> contain beta glycosidase and polyphenol oxidase.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Advantages of food enzyme intake</h3>
1. Improves digestion, elimination and bowel disorders.<br />
2. Reduces bloating, belching, gas, heartburn and food allergies.<br />
3. Enhances physical stamina, energy and vitality.<br />
4. Promotes balanced pH in the body.<br />
5. Protects form degenerative diseases.<br />
6. Strengthens the immune system.<br />
7. Relieves muscle stiffness and inflammation.<br />
8. Promotes the efficiency of cardiovascular system. <br />
9. Slows down aging process and contributes to longevity.<br />
10. Influences overall health and weight management.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Enzyme therapy</b></h3>
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Presently enzymes are used in supplement form to improve
health, in injectable form to treat heart attacks and in topical form to treat
skin problems such as burns. The enzymes used most frequently to treat
digestive problems include proteases, amylases and lipases. Enzymes are
wonderous aids used to improve health, maintain wellness and fight disease and
injuries. Enzyme therapy is a plan of dietary supplements of plant and animal
enzymes used to facilitate the digestive process and improve the body’s ability
to maintain balanced metabolism. Enzyme supplements are often prescribed for patients
suffering from disorders that affect the digestive process such as cystic
fibrosis, Gaucher’s disease and celiac disease. Supplementary enzymes have the
ability to purify blood, strengthen the immune system, enhance mental capacity,
cleanse the colon and maintain proper pH balance in urine. Enzyme supplements
are extracted from plants like pineapple and papaya and from the organs of cows
and pigs.<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"><b><i> Food enzymes lower the drain of
organism’s own enzyme potential.</i></b></span></div>
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bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-52316178188046739582014-09-18T09:32:00.002-07:002015-01-23T23:33:14.123-08:00Systems thinking for problem solving<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
A system consists of processes that transform inputs into outputs. The processing is performed by the subsystems. Super systems are other systems in environment of which the survival of the focal system is dependent. Boundaries are the part of the system through which inputs and outputs must pass, during which exchanges between systems and with their environment reflect a mutually interactive process. The concept of boundary implies a hierarchy of systems in which there is both separateness and connectedness. All systems operate in an environment of cause and effect. Systems science provides a means of analysing and understanding complex processes based on a few basic principles. According to<b> Ludwig Van Bertalanffy</b> (1968), the founder of the systems theory, a system is ‘a set of elements in interaction’. Some examples of systems include scientific, organizational, personal and public systems. Systems are wholes which cannot be understood through analysis. Synthesis is a prerequisite for the systems thinking. Systems thinking places high value on understanding contexts and looking for connections between the parts, actors and processes of the system. Ludwig Van Bertalanffy, father of systems thinking said, “In one way or another we are forced to deal with complexities, with ‘wholes’ or ‘systems’ in all fields of knowledge. This implies a basic reorientation in scientific thinking.”<b> Stephen Haines</b> also said, “The systems thinking approach is an absolute necessity to succeed in today’s complex world.”<br />
<div>
The term<b> ‘system’</b> comes from a Greek word <i>systema</i> meaning ‘whole compounded of several parts or members’ or in the literary sense ‘composition.’ System means ‘something to look at.’ A system is constituted by its elements that is, all the parts that make up the whole; the links between the parts, that is the processes and interrelationships that hold the parts together in view of the whole; its boundary, that is , the limit that determines what is inside and outside a system. <br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Systems defined...</h3>
Systems are made up of a set of components that work together for the overall objectives of the whole (outputs).“A system is a set of things –people,
cells, molecules-interconnected in such a way that they produce their own
pattern of behaviour over time” (Donella Meadows). As a system develops, it
generates pattern of behaviour due to the connections between elements in an
organized fashion.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Systems theory</h3>
Systems theory was proposed in the 1940s by the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanfy (General systems theory 1968) furthered by Ross Ashby (Introduction to Cybernatics 1956). Systems theory can be defined as a set of unifying principles about the organization and functioning of systems. Systems theory provides an analytical framework for viewing an organization in general.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Systems concept</h3>
Systems are defined as meaningful wholes that are maintained by the interaction of their parts (Laszlo 1972). System can also be defined as “a set of interacting or interdependent system components forming an integrated whole (Lidell and Scott 1940). A system is a dynamic and complex whole, interacting as a structured functional unit. All systems are composed of inter-connected parts. A change to any part or connection affects the entire system. The structure of a system determines its behaviour. “Structure produces behaviour.” To understand a systems’ gross behaviour, it is essential to understand its structure. The change in the structure of a system effects change in its gross behaviour. System behaviour is an emergent phenomenon – how a system behaves cannot be determined by inspection of its part or structure. Feedback loops control a system’s major dynamic behaviour. Every part of a system is involved in one or more feedback loops. Systems have more feedback loops than parts. Feedback loops are the main reason, a system’s behaviour is emergent.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Broad types of systems</h3>
<b>Natural systems</b> –e.g. forests, human body.<br />
<b>Engineered or designed systems</b> –e.g. computer, car.<br />
<b>Purposeful or human –activity systems</b>-e.g. hospitals, prisons, schools.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Systems nature (Fredrich Hegel 1770-1831)</h3>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]-->The whole is more than the sum of the parts.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]-->The whole defines the nature of the parts.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]-->The parts cannot be understood by studying the
whole.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->4.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]-->The parts are dynamically interrelated or
interdependent.</div>
<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
System components</h3>
A system must consist of 3 kinds of things: elements (things), interconnections (processes) and a function (purpose). A system is an interconnected set of elements that is coherently organized in such a way that achieves something. A tree is a system and a forest is a larger system that encompasses subsystems of trees and animals. The interconnections in the tree system are the physical flows (e.g., water) and the chemical reactions that govern the tree’s metabolic processes. The interconnections or purposes are critically important in a system. Changing relationships usually changes system behaviour. System behaviour operates through feedback loops.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Systems thinking – ‘thinking about systems’ </h3>
A system thinking is the ability to understand interactions and relationships in complex dynamic systems. A system thinking focuses on relationships, connectedness, multiple outcomes, holism and boundaries, the environment, the larger system and feedback. A system thinking helps to view systems from a broad perspective that includes seeing overall structures, patterns and cycles in systems and context. A system thinking is a superior approach in trying to understand the world’s complexity.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Systems characteristics</h3>
1. A system is a collection of interacting parts. Every system is a part of some larger system. Behaviour of any part is influenced by interaction with other parts. Systems can be represented in abstract networks of relations between components.<br />
2. A system boundary defines the set of parts that comprise a system. A system may interact with things outside of its boundary. External interaction is less influential of the system behaviour than internal interaction. Behaviour is understood by examining the entire system, not individual parts. <br />
3. Systems are organized in structural and functional hierarchies. <br />
4. Systems exhibit several of kinds and levels of complexity.<br />
5. Systems have dynamic processes on one or more time scales.<br />
6. Systems emerge from proto-systems (unorganized, not complex) and evolve over time to greater organization and complexity.<br />
7. Systems can encode knowledge and receive and send information.<br />
8. Systems evolve internal regulation subsystems to achieve stability.<br />
9. Systems can contain models of other systems. <br />
10. Sufficiently complex, adaptive systems can contain models of themselves (brain/ mental models).<br />
11. Systems can be understood – science as the building of models.<br />
12. Systems can be improved – Engineering as an evolutionary process.<br />
<h3>
Systems understanding</h3>
Understanding of system is achieved through identification, modelling and analysis of relationships and interactions among the parts of a system. System modelling is performed by representing the parts of a system and interactions among those parts. In reality, a system consists of many feedback loops and many interactions among those loops. It is that total systems view that helps to achieve depth of understanding and real insight into the behaviours of complex systems.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Systems thinking rules (minimalist concept theory, MCT)</h3>
<b>Distinction making</b> – All thinking is distinction making. Distinction making is autonomic – one constantly makes distinctions all of the time. It is the making of differentiation between the identity of concepts and between what is internal and what is external to the boundaries of the concept. <br />
<b>Interrelating </b>– It is the process of interlinking one concept to another by identifying reciprocal causes and effects.<br />
<b>Organizing systems </b>– It is the process of splitting / lumping concepts into larger wholes or smaller parts and<br />
<b>Perspective taking </b>– It is the process of reorienting a system of concepts by determining the focal point from which observation occurs by attributing to a point in the system, a view of the other objects in the system (e.g., point of view).<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
System thinking skills (Assaraf and Orion 2005)</h3>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]-->The ability to identify the components of a
system and processes within the system.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]-->The ability to identify the relationships among
the systems’ components. </div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]-->The ability to identify dynamic relationships
within the system.</div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->4.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]-->The ability to organize the system’s components
and processes within a framework of relationships (e.g.,chain, circle,
network).</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->5.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]-->The ability to understand the cyclic nature of
systems.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->6.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Understanding the hidden dimensions of the
system.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->7.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]-->The ability to make generalizations.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->8.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Thinking temporally: retrospection and
prediction.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Systems thinking process</h3>
1. List as many elements as possible. Analytical thinking breaks things apart in stages. Systems thinking groups things together in stages.<br />
2. Group the elements into sub-themes.<br />
3. Find the central theme – the common theme across the sub-themes.<br />
Systems thinking benefits <br />
1. A conceptual framework to think strategically and a way to look at a complex issue in multiple perspectives.<br />
2. A way to acquire new knowledge more easily because basic rules remain the same from system to system.<br />
3. A better way to integrate new ideas within the systems context and dynamics.<br />
4. A clearer way to see, understand and assess what is going on in an organization or in any system. Complex problems become easier to understand as do the interrelationships and the multiple causes and effects.<br />
5. A new and better way to design solutions, create strategies, take decisions and solve problems.<br />
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<b><i> Systems thinking simplifies complexity.<o:p></o:p></i></b><br />
<b><span style="color: red;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="color: red;">Quote for reflection</span></b><br />
<b><i>"When we live in a system, we absorb a system and</i></b><br />
<b><i> think in a system." </i></b> - JAMES W.DOUGLASS.</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
bonvictor.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05982665579778128354noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5805625310002156550.post-76589741868289011082014-09-13T02:00:00.001-07:002015-04-27T22:29:08.885-07:00Ways of developing critical thinking <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Thinking</b></h3>
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Thinking is the highest mental activity present in man.
Thinking is the process of giving careful thought to something. In other words,
thinking is an action of using one's mind to produce ideas, decisions, memories
etc. <span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">. </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span>Thinking process involves using a sequence of skills intended to achieve a particular outcome.Thinking is a simple cognitive operation of observing, organizing, analyzing evaluating and inferring. It is a habit of intelligent behaviour learned through practice.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Edward de Bono<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>said,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>“Thinking is a skill that can be improved by
practice.”<span class="apple-converted-space"><b> </b></span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Critical thinking</b></h3>
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“Critical” is derived from the Greek word <i><b>kritikos</b></i> which means <b>“to judge.” </b>Critical thinking, also called evaluative thinking includes a complex combination of
abilities such as ordering, classifying, and analyzing, evaluating, observing,
comparing, and contrasting information for problem solving. Critical thinking
involves questioning. Critical thinking is goal directed; it is the thinking
with a purpose. Using logic and reasoning a critical thinker identifies the
strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions or approaches to
problems. <b>Critical thinking has two important components: </b>it includes a frame of mind and a number of specific mental operations.<b>Critical thinking has three dimensions: </b>an analytic, an evaluative and creative component. As a critical thinker, one has to analyse thinking in order to evaluate it. One has to evaluate it in order to improve it.<br />
<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span> Critical thinking is a process
“orchestrates numerous skills and is directed toward achieving an
objective." Swartz and Perkins
(1990) discuss critical thinking as “the critical examination and evaluation
–actual and potential- of beliefs and courses of action.” Ralph Waldo Emerson
said, "Thinking is the function. Living is the functionary."</div>
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<br /></div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Definitions of critical thinking</b></h3>
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Critical thinking may be defined as "the process of
purposeful, self-regulatory judgement. The process gives reasoned consideration
to evidence, contexts, conceptualizations, methods and criteria (American
Philosophical Association, 1990). <br />
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
Critical thinking is the ability to analyse facts,
generate and organize ideas, defend opinions, make comparisons, draw inferences,
evaluate arguments and solve problems (Chance, 1986).</div>
</div>
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Critical thinking is reasonable, reflective thinking that
is focused on deciding what to believe (Ennis 1996).</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
Critical thinking is skillful, reasonable thinking that is
conducive to good judgement because it is sensitive to context, relies on
criteria and is self-correcting (Matthew Lipman).</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
Critical thinking is thinking about your thinking, while
you’re thinking, in order to making your thinking better (Richard Paul). </div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
In short, critical thinking is the ability to think
clearly and rationally. Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined
process of evaluating information and evaluating our thought process. In brief,
critical thinking is self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored and
self-corrective thinking. <br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Critical spirit</b></h3>
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Critical thinkers need certain attitudes, dispositions,
passions and traits of mind. Thinking critically requires a critical spirit or
critical mindedness (Norris, 1985). The critical spirit requires one to think critically
about all aspects of life, to think critically about one’s own thinking and to
act on the basis of what one has considered when using critical thinking
skills.Critical thinking skills enable people to evaluate,
compare, analyse, critique and synthesize information.</div>
</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Principles of critical thinking </b></h3>
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<b>Critical thinking is an active process – </b>It involves in gathering, analyzing,
synthesizing, assessing and applying data in solving problems.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b>Critical thinking is an organized and systematic
process</b> – It involves using
criteria or standards to judge the validity of information.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b>Critical thinking is a search for meaning – </b>it is a way of making sense out of the data or
information.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b>Critical thinking is reflective</b> – It involves thinking about your thinking.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b>Critical thinking involves standards</b> – Accuracy, relevance and depth are some
examples of standards or criteria.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b>Critical thinking is authentic</b> – critical thinking is thinking about real
problems. Real problems are often messy and unclear.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b>Critical thinking involves being reasonable</b> – for thinking to be critical, it must be
reasonable thinking.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b>Critical thinking is a skill that can be learned –</b> It is based on active, logical reasoning on
facts and evidence and a desire to learn.<o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
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</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Intellectual standards of critical thinking</b> (Paul and Elder 2001).</h3>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
Critical thinking includes a complex combination of
skills. Critical thinkers use the intellectual tools that critical thinking
offers-concepts and principles that enable them to analyse, assess and improve
thinking. Critical thinkers should check their thinking according to the
following standards of Paul and Elder (2001).The standards of critical thinking are clarity, accuracy,
precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, significance and fairness.
Standards are essential to increasing the quality of thinking. Increased skill
in the application of standards improves the process of critical thinking.<br />
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>Clarity- understandable, the meaning can be grasped;</li>
<li>Accuracy- free from errors or distortions, true; </li>
<li>Precision-exact to the necessary level of detail;</li>
<li>Relevance-relating to the matter at hand;</li>
<li>Depth- containing complexities and multiple interrelationships;</li>
<li>Breadth- encompassing multiple viewpoints;</li>
<li>Logic-the parts make sense together, no contradictions;</li>
<li>Significance-focusing on the important, not trivial;</li>
<li>Fairness – justifiable, not self-serving or one sided.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>3 – Parts of critical thinking</b></h3>
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Firstly, critical
thinking involves asking questions. Secondly, critical thinking involves trying
to answer those questions by reasoning them out. Thirdly, critical thinking
involves believing the results of our reasoning.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>5 – Step
process of critical thinking - IDEAS</b></h3>
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Step
1.Identify the problem and set priorities (I)<o:p></o:p></div>
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Step 2.Deepen
understanding and gather relevant information (D)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
Step 3.Enumerate
options and anticipate consequences (E).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
Step 4.Assess
situation and make a preliminary decision (A).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
Step
5.Scrutinize the process and self-correct as needed (S)<o:p></o:p></div>
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The ability to think critically requires a great deal of
effort and time. Critical thinking is that mode of thinking –about any subject,
content or problem – in which the thinker improves the quality of his/her
thinking by skilfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and
imposing the intellectual standards ( or a level or degree of quality) (Paul
and Willsen, 1993).</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>A list of critical
thinking skills based on Maker and Nielson ( 1996)</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Determining fact and opinion<b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Choosing relevant from irrelevant information.</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Determining the accuracy of a statement.</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Determining the credibility of a source.</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Recognizing ambiguities.</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Identifying underlying assumptions.</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Determining external and internal bias.</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->Recognizing valid and fallacious arguments.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>5-main theoretical
requirements for critical thinking (Joe Y.F.Lau 1968)</b></h3>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Meaning
analysis – Explain ideas clearly and systematically; use definitions and other
tools to clarify meaning and make ideas more precise.</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Logic
– Analyse and evaluate arguments; identify logical consequences and
inconsistencies.</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Scientific
methods – Use empirical data to test a theory; identify causes and effects;
probability theory and statistics.</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->4.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Decision
and values -Rational decision making; critical reflection of value frameworks
and moral judgements.</div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->5.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Fallacies
and biases – Typical mistakes of reasoning and psychological traits likely to
cause such mistakes.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Characteristics of
a critical thinker</b> (Paul R and Elder L, 2010)</h3>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]-->One
who raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and
precisely.</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]-->One
who gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to
interpret it effectively.</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]-->One
who comes to well- reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against
relevant criteria or standards.</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->4.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]-->One
who thinks open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and
assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications and practical
consequences and </div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->5.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span><!--[endif]-->One
who communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex
problems.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b> Critical thinking and creativity</b></h3>
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The ideas are usually composed of different elements. Our
store of ideas (knowledge base) provides the ingredients to generate new ones.
The new combination of ideas is formulated by joining different ideas together.
In general new ideas are old ones rearranged in a new way. The ingredients for
creativity depend on the store of ideas that are available for recombination.</div>
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Critical thinking is necessary to help determine the
relevance and effectiveness of the idea. It is a necessary condition for
cognitive creativity- the generation of new ideas and the evaluation and
modification of old ideas. Creativity is enhanced by the ability to detect
connections between the ideas. So if anyone wants to be creative, he /she must
develop the skill of critical thinking to see the connections between different
areas. Good thinking involves both critical thinking and creativity.</div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b>Benefits of
critical thinking</b></h3>
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Critical thinking
is higher-order and more <b>complex form of thinking.</b> It involves more evidence –
based analysis of information and clear understanding of problems and
solutions. Critical thinking enables faster, accurate and logical inferences
and quality decisions. Critical thinking is inherent to problem solving and decision making. Good critical thinking is a<b> cognitive skill.</b> Using
critical thinking, one is able to acquire knowledge, understanding, insights
and skills in any given body of content. Critical thinkers are more flexible in
their thinking and they offer a richer variety of explanations and solutions
for any problem. A well cultivated critical thinker thinks open-mindedly within
alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing their assumptions,
implications and practical consequences. People, who think critically,
consistently attempt to live rationally, reasonably and empathetically. Critical
thinking contributes to the <b>process of self-evaluation and transformation.</b> They
easily recognize opportunities and avoid making mistakes in problem-solving.
Critical thinking results in improved planning of tasks. Critical thinking
skills are essential for all sorts of careers in which we have to communicate
ideas, make decisions, analyse and solve problems. Good critical thinking is
the foundation of science and democracy. Science requires rationality in
designing experiments and testing hypotheses. A good democracy requires
citizens who can think objectively about social and political issues. The
cultivation of critical thinking is central to the aim of education.<br />
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><i> Critical thinking uses evidence-based analysis of information.</i></b></div>
</div>
</div>
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